Beirut Lebanon Photo Fuad Chehab Parliament President 1958 Original Vintage 7X9
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BEIRUT LEBANON PHOTO FUAD CHEHAB PARLIAMENT PRESIDENT 1958 ORIGINAL VINTAGE 7X9. A VINTAGE ORIGINAL 7X9 INCH PHOTO FROM 1958 IN BEIRUT LEBANON GEN. FUAD CHEHAB (STANDING) ADDRESSES THE LEBANESE VPARLIAMENT DURING HIS INAUGRATION AS PRESIDENT Emir Fouad Abdullah Chehab was a Lebanese politician and army general who served as the third President of Lebanon from 23 September 1958 to 22 September 1964. Born in Ghazir to a family that traced its origins to nobility, Chehab joined the French Army in 1919.
Emir Fouad Abdullah Chehab (Arabic: فُؤادْ عبد الله شِهاب; also transliterated Fuad Shihab; 19 March 1902 – 25 April 1973) was a Lebanese politician and army general who served as the third President of Lebanon from 23 September 1958 to 22 September 1964. Born in Ghazir to a family that traced its origins to nobility, Chehab joined the French Army in 1919. After Lebanon's independence from France, he was tasked to organize the armed forces and became the first Commander of the Army in 1946 after its establishment. He was appointed as Prime Minister by the outgoing president Bechara El Khoury who resigned due to widespread demonstrations against his administration, with the role of organizing the next presidential election. He was the acting president as well until Camille Chamoun was elected. During the 1958 Lebanon crisis between Chamoun and Muslim leaders, he prevented the army from siding with the government or the opposition, and refused any request to do so. This decision helped keep the army unified and limited losses. He was elected as president of Lebanon in the 1958 election as the "consensus option", both internationally and locally, to succeed Chamoun. As president, Chehab is credited for introducing reforms and social development projects and building modern state instutitions.[1] He stepped down from office in 1964 and refused to seek a second term. His approaches and policies, known as "Chehabism" influenced later presidents, specifically Charles Helou and Élias Serkis. Contents 1 Early life 2 Military career 3 Presidency 4 Later life 5 Legacy 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Early life Born in 1902,[2] Chehab was the eldest son of Abdullah Chehab and Badiaa Hbeich, and had two younger brothers, Farid and Chakib. He was a member of the Chehab family, a dynasty which ruled Mount Lebanon during Ottoman rule until the establishment of Mutasarrifate in 1842. His great-grandfather, Hassan Chehab, was the eldest brother of Bashir Shihab II, who ruled Lebanon for 40 years.[3] Chehab's father Abdullah tried to immigrate to the United States in 1910, but the family never heard from him again. He was last seen in Marseille and it has been speculated that he died while on a ship transporting him there.[4] Military career Chehab became commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces in 1945,[2] at which time Lebanon gained its independence upon the end of the French mandate and military presence. In 1952, Chehab refused to allow the army to interfere in the uprising that forced Lebanese President Bechara El Khoury to resign. Chehab was then appointed president with the duty to ensure an emergency democratic presidential election. Four days later, Camille Chamoun was elected to succeed El Khoury. The gerrymandering and the alleged electoral fraud of the 1957 parliamentary election, followed by the dismissal of several pro-Arab ministers, sparked a violent Muslim revolt that came to be known as the Lebanon crisis of 1958. The tensions that were exposed would result in a civil war 17 years later (1975–1991). Like in 1952, Chehab, who remained commander of the army, refused to allow the military to interfere. He thus prevented supporters of both the opposition and the government from assuming positions of strategic importance, such as airports and government buildings. Presidency Two men standing side by side in the forefront, wearing overcoats. Behind them are several men in military uniform or suits and ties standing and saluting or making no gestures. Chehab (left) and United Arab Republic President Gamal Abdel Nasser (to Chehab's left) at the Syrian–Lebanese border during talks to end the crisis in Lebanon To quell the uprising, Chamoun, with the help of his assistant Tanner Wilhelm Hale, requested American intervention, and US Marines soon landed in Beirut. Widely trusted by the Muslims for his impartiality and now supported by the Americans, Chehab was chosen as the consensus candidate to succeed Chamoun as president to restore peace to the country. On taking office, Chehab declared, "The revolution has no winners and no losers". Following a path of moderation and co-operating closely with the various religious groups, and with both secular and religious forces, Chehab was able to cool tensions and bring stability back to the nation. In 1960, two years into his six-year presidential mandate, seeing that the country had been stabilised and having paved the way for reforms, Chehab offered to resign. However, he was persuaded by members of the Lebanese Parliament to remain in office for the rest of his mandate. In 1961, he suppressed an attempted coup by the Syrian Social Nationalist Party, which had been infuriated over his associations with the Nasser regime. To hinder such future threats, he strengthened the Lebanese intelligence and security services to prevent any further foreign interference in Lebanese internal affairs. Professor As'ad AbuKhalil criticized his rule after the coup, calling it a "police state".[5] Chehab's rule was a delicate balancing act of maintaining relative harmony between the nation's Christian and Muslim populations. He followed the path and principles of dialogue and moderation coupled with public reforms, which came to be known as Chehabism. Generally deeply respected for his honesty and integrity, Chehab is credited with a number of reform plans and regulations to create a modern administration and efficient public services. That eventually brought him into conflict with the traditional feudal, confessional, and clan-based politicians, who saw their grip on power diminishing. In 1964, Chehab, whose presence at the head of the country was still seen by many as the best option for stability and future reforms, refused to allow the Lebanese Constitution to be amended to permit him to run for another presidential term. He backed the candidacy of Charles Helou, who became the next president. Chehab later became dissatisfied with Helou's presidency over the perceived mishandling of the armed presence of Palestinian guerrillas in Southern Lebanon and over Helou's maneuvers to pave the way for the traditional feudal politicians to regain power. Later life Chehab was widely expected to contest the presidential election of 1970, but in a historical declaration, he declared that his experience in office had convinced him that the people of his country were not ready to put aside traditional or feudal politics or to support him in building a modern state. He chose to endorse his protégé, Elias Sarkis, instead. In the closest vote in Lebanese history, Sarkis lost the election to the feudal leader Suleiman Frangieh by a single vote in the National Assembly. The election was regarded as a defeat for the old statesman and marked the end of the Chehabist reforms and era. The first months of the Frangieh mandate saw the dismantling of the country's intelligence and security services, which had been built by Chehab. They were feared and accused of maintaining a strong grip on political life. That, however, allowed rapidly increasing multiple foreign interference in the internal affairs of the country, soon manifesting itself into a Palestinian military presence in 1973 and the onset of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975. Fouad Chehab died in Beirut in April 1973, at the age of 71. Many look at his era as being marked by statehood and the rule of law. Legacy Chehab is seen as the greatest president of the country by several politicians such as Raymond Eddé,[6] journalists such as Samir Atallah and Jihad Al Khazen,[7][8] and commentators such as Ziad Rahbani.[9] Sheikh Maher Hammoud said that he is the only pre-Taif president who deserved major executive powers.[10] However, Professor As'ad AbuKhalil criticized his rule after the coup, calling it a "police state".[5] السيرة الذاتية لفخامة رئيس الجمهورية اللبنانية اللواء فؤاد شهاب الولاية الرئاسية من 23/9/1958 لغاية 22/9/1964 معلومات شخصية : الاسم : فؤاد عبد الله شهاب تاريخ ومحل الولادة : (19/3/1902 – 25/4/1973)، غزير- كسروان .الوضع العائلي : تأهل من روز رينيه بواتيو مؤهلاته العلمية والثقافية: تلقى علومه في مدرسة الفرير في جونية. مسيرته المهنية والسياسية: .تخرج في 20/9/1923 برتبة ملازم من المدرسة الحربية بدمشق .عين قائداً للجيش اللبناني عند تسلمه للحكومة اللبنانية اعتباراً من 1/8/1945 .كان أول قائد للجيش اللبناني 1/8/1945 .قـاد بصفته القائـد الأعلى للجيش اللبنانـي والقوى التابعـة له الأعمال الحربيـة في فلسطيـن اعتباراً من 14/5/1948 ولغاية 21/3/1949 عين رئيساً للحكومة اللبنانية ووزيراً للداخلية والدفاع الوطني اعتباراً من 18/9/1952 مع احتفاظه بقيادة الجيش اعتباراً من 18/9/1952 ولغاية 30/9/1952. .عين وزيراً للدفاع الوطني اعتباراً من 18/11/1956 وهو محتفظاً بقيادة الجيش .أحيل على التقاعد اعتباراً من 23/9/1958 بمناسبة انتخابه رئيساً للجمهورية تم انتخابه بعد أحداث 1958 خلفا للرئيس كميل شمعون. Biography of His Excellency the President of the Republic of Lebanon , Major General Fouad Shehab Presidential term from 9/23/1958 to 9/22/1964 personal information : Name: Fouad Abdullah Shehab Date and place of birth: (19/3/1902 - 25/4/1973), Ghazir - Kesrouan. Family status: Married by Rose René Poitiou His academic and cultural qualifications: He received his education at the Freire School in Jounieh. His professional and political career: He graduated on 20/9/1923 with the rank of lieutenant from the Military School in Damascus Appointed commander of the Lebanese army upon taking over the Lebanese government starting 1/8/1945 He was the first commander of the Lebanese Army 1/8/1945 In his capacity as the supreme commander of the Lebanese army and the forces affiliated to it, he led the hostilities in Palestine from May 14, 1948 until March 21, 1949. He was appointed Prime Minister of the Lebanese Government and Minister of Interior and National Defense starting 9/18/1952 while retaining the command of the army from 9/18/1952 until 9/30/1952. He was appointed Minister of National Defense starting 11/18/1956 and he retains the command of the army He was retired as of 9/23/1958 on the occasion of his election as President of the Republic He was elected after the events of 1958 to succeed President Camille Chamou what the Lebanese officer did, who violated the constitution once and refused to do so again. Fouad Chehab is not a passing political case. It is a political "approach" that its supporters see as closely related to respecting the constitution and giving priority to the national interest over personal interest. While his opponents are still targeting the police color of his rule through the influence of the "Second Office". On the eve of the presidential elections, which are scheduled to close the door on one presidential era and open the door to another, she was with Prince Abdullah Shehab, the nephew of the late president, who spoke about the stages he experienced during his youth during President Shehab's rule. "Prayer of the Rosary" “Some say that President Shehab was a dictator and ruthless.” Abdullah rejected this saying, saying, “We are not in the process of enumerating the aid that the president was providing, but I will tell you about a story I lived with him. He frequently rejected the idea of execution based on his Christian idea that “God gave her life.” And he is the one who takes it.” And he continued, “On a Sunday we visited him and waited for him for a long time, but he did not leave his office because he was associated with a working meeting with the then-President of the Supreme Judicial Council Badri Meouchi, who was striving hard to obtain his approval to execute one of the wanted men. We returned to the house and the meeting was not over yet. He added: "The next day, I asked his wife about the outcome of the meeting, and she said that it ended at three o'clock in the morning by obtaining his consent without being convinced of the death penalty, but he considered that the criminal should be an example to others." Abdullah talked about the president's relationship with God, saying : "The President used to pray the rosary daily on the "Staha"After his death, I discovered a picture of the Virgin in his desk drawer. the Constitution The Emir believes that "the president's acceptance of the extension was impossible... despite the parliamentary majority's attempts to persuade him to extend it after signing the draft law amending the constitution and the government's unanimous approval of it, but he categorically rejected it, based on three main reasons. If we go out against him once, this will be repeated several times, and secondly, because he is convinced that the military should not enter politics for fear of coups, as was the case in some Arab countries, and thirdly, because his health did not help him in that because he tired a lot during the six years he spent in the presidency. He was working a lot and exhausting himself until late at night." second office Abdullah does not hide the advantages that his military uncle enjoyed and that helped him during his reign, most notably that he served in most Lebanese regions and knows the characteristics of each region and how to deal with its people. He added that he had a second office at his side, which he was following up "without the latter daring to pass on any false information." Abdullah considers that President Shehab was a ruler by his command until the end of the era, but he was subjected to a great injustice by shortening his reign only by the crimes of individuals from the second office. He admitted that "mistakes may have occurred, but they were in the interest of Lebanon and not for a personal interest." under collapse Abdullah talks about an experience he lived with President Shehab during the year 1970 when he was a student at the Jesuit University: “I learned through the students of the Phalangists, the Liberals, the Bloc and the Nationalists that they would bring a president who would overthrow everything President Shehab had done. He said: “They saw how much Fouad Chehab did, and they would not be able to do anything.” Abdullah added, “The president had a feeling at that time that Lebanon was collapsing and that everything that worked for him was in danger, so when he was asked to return to power in 1970, he refused that out of the blue. From the idea that there is no salvation in Lebanon except through changing the political system, and this thing was difficult at that time because the Lebanese were not ready for that and many things hindered them.” Neutrality with the outside Abdullah Shehab finds in the foreign policy adopted by President Shehab an awareness of the sensitivity of the Lebanese sectarian structure, "in Lebanon, Christian, Druze, Sunni and Shiite, and every sect has its regional or international support, and if left to its "comfort", it will work for the benefit of these countries and the proof is what is taking place today in Lebanon ". In the opinion of the emir, his uncle sought during his reign to secure the interests of these countries in Lebanon without directly interfering, saying, "If he was aware that parties from Lebanon were working to carry out a coup in Syria, he would have intervened to prevent this without allowing the Syrians to intervene to put an end to the situation." end of this process. Abdullah gave an example of how President Chehab used this impartiality for the benefit of Lebanon, saying: Bkerke The relationship with Bkerki was very important to President Shehab, and he had a good relationship with Patriarch Meouchi, but he was against Bkerke's direct intervention in politics, says Abdullah, adding that "President Shehab was considered Bkerki able to ask what she wanted directly from the President of the Republic without declaring her position on the basis of From the idea that if the patriarch intervenes in politics today, the mufti will intervene tomorrow." Chehab’s nephew’s memory is rich with novels that printed the covenant, including according to Abdullah “Zuhd,” the president who “is not concerned with money, but only wants the state and Lebanon and refuses political inheritance.” Rarely did Chehab's relative admit the negative aspects that led Chehab's opponents to describe him as a dictator, authoritarian, and the owner of police rule. It is certain that listening to his novels opens horizons to a tumultuous phase of Lebanon's modern history, during which politics was practiced with more profound and vital standards than today, especially since the idea of the state had not yet approached the idea of impossibility. Prince Fouad Abdullah Shehab (of the descendants of the Shehab princes) was born on March 19, 1902 in Ghazis (Kesrouan) to his father, Prince Abdullah Shehab and his mother, Sheikha Badia Hobeish. There were conflicting news about his destination between Egypt, Turkey and America. After about two years, news of the father was cut off from his family (wife and three children, Fouad, Farid and Shakib) and his fate was not known. Did he drown in the sea while trying to emigrate to another country after his last headquarters was Marseilles, or was he killed or died? Thus, Shehab, an orphan father, was born. After the father's news broke, the family's condition worsened, so the mother decided to return to her father's home, Sheikh Talib Hobeish in Jounieh, where her two brothers, Wadih and Badie', and her two sisters, Isabel and Nabiha, lived in the same house. In the year 1914, the First World War broke out and the schools closed their doors, so Fouad Chehab went with his two brothers to a small school near the port of Jounieh, whose director and only teacher was the priest Louis El-Khazen. The family's poverty prompted Shehab to drop out of school and work directly (calling litigants and witnesses to appear before the judge) in Jounieh Court for two years, with the support of his uncle Wadih Hobeish. Army Fouad Chehab volunteered in the Syrian Cavalry Unit in the East of the French army in September 1919, and after a year he left the army, but he remained without work. Promotion and positions, where he became captain in December 1929. At the beginning of 1944, General Georges Catroux, commander of the Free French Forces, promoted him to the rank of colonel. After Lebanon gained its independence in 1943, negotiations began with the French authorities to transfer the Eastern Special Forces (which included Lebanese working in the French army) from the mandate authority to the authority of the Lebanese government, and that was on August 1, 1945. On July 26, 1946, the Lebanese government appointed the leader (military rank at the time) Fouad Chehab as commander of the Lebanese Army, and he remained in his position for 12 years until 1958, when he was elected President of the Republic. Thus, he was the first army commander, and the first army commander to become president of the Lebanese Republic. During the 12 years he spent in command, he worked on developing the army, rearming it and organizing it to enable it to protect the regime and the state. He was considered the builder of the Lebanese army. Presidency During Chehab's assumption of command of the Lebanese army, he was the focus of constant attention, despite his distance from the limelight. A new president, who became Camille Chamoun. In the crisis that erupted in 1958 against President Camille Chamoun and what accompanied it in crises in the region, especially Iraq and Egypt, and the American entry into Lebanon, the Egyptian-American consensus was made on him to be president of the Lebanese Republic and put an end to the state of deterioration that Lebanon began to experience. In a session held by the House of Representatives on July 31, 1958, Shehab was elected President of the Republic, but President Camille Chamoun stuck to his position until the end of his constitutional term on September 23, when the handover process took place. Shehab continued as president until 1964, rejecting the attempts that were made to renew his term despite the support of the majority of deputies for this option. his marriage In 1924, Fouad Chehab, who was a lieutenant, became acquainted with the French Rose René Poitiou (born in 1904), the daughter of a French officer killed in the First World War. His work in the French army in Syria and Lebanon, and this allowed her to get acquainted with Shehab, who culminated in the marriage on December 27, 1926 in the Church of the Carmelites in the town of Qobayat al-Akari, where his workplace and the place of residence of his wife’s family, but this marriage did not produce children. his attributes Shehab was characterized by his love of seclusion and distance from noise, and he preferred nature and calm, and perhaps his most prominent characteristic is integrity and lack of money, as he spent 12 years as an army commander and 6 years as president of the republic and until his death he remained a main focus in politics, but he died poor as he was born. He did not leave a financial or real estate fortune, like most of our politicians. When his wife died in 1992, her wealth consisted of a small house that needed repairs and restoration, an old car and a bank account of 1.5 million pounds (less than a thousand dollars at the time). the end After leaving the presidency, he chose to stay away from political life and public life as much as possible, but he continued as a pivot in political life visited by close officers and politicians. He died on Wednesday afternoon, April 25, 1973, as a result of a severe heart attack, and his wife died on February 18, 1992, about 19 years since Chehab's death as a result of weakness and disability. This is how Chehab's personal page was turned, but the Lebanese still remember the institutions that were established during the Chehab era, although some criticize him for the wide powers he granted to the officers of the second office, which was one of the flaws that his reign ha saw a completely opposite image in him, saying that he was a ruthless dictator, with the slogan "neither conqueror nor defeated." He presented himself as a consensual candidate to succeed President Camille Chamoun, and he was the first commander of the Lebanese army who held the position of Minister of Defense from October 18, 1956 to March 1957. He was the late Fouad Abdullah Shehab, who was elected on this day, July 31, 1958, as President of the Lebanese Republic. Shehab ruled Lebanon from September 23, 1958 to September 22, 1964, and in 1923 he graduated with the rank of lieutenant from the Military School in Homs, and on August 1, 1945, he became the first commander of the Lebanese Army. After the events of 1958, he was elected to succeed President Camille Chamoun, and made several administrative reforms He sought to improve Lebanon's relationship with other Arab countries, and in 1962 his regime was subjected to a failed coup attempt orchestrated by the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. He was succeeded in 1964 by Charles Helou. Major General Fouad Shehab was an officer in the Al-Sharq Division, which was struggling to liberate Lebanon and achieve its independence. The ranks of the French army for military service for one year - before the declaration of the mandate over Lebanon in the year 1920 Shehab refused to let the army get involved in this Political confrontation and intervention for or against any of the conflicting parties When Beshara Al-Khoury was forced to resign, Major General Shehab was appointed as the head of a transitional government whose mission was to organize and secure the election of a president and was keen to keep the army away from politics. In 1958, a sharp political split occurred among the Lebanese, which was known as the crisis of 58, and the need for a consensual and strong president arose to save the country and restore calm and peace. With the end of his presidential term in 1964, many considered that President Chehab's survival at the head of the country was the best option for the continuation of stability and the completion of more reforms. However, Chehab categorically refused to amend the constitution to allow him to run for a second term. Fouad Chehab died at his home in Jounieh on April 25, 1973, of a heart attack, at the age of seventy-one. Beirut (/beɪˈruːt/ bay-ROOT;[4] Arabic: بيروت, romanized: About this soundBayrūt) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As of 2014, Greater Beirut has a population of 2.2 million,[5] which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been inhabited for more than 5,000 years, and was one of Phoenicia's most prominent city states, making it one of the oldest cities in the world. The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the Amarna letters from the New Kingdom of Egypt, which date to the 15th century BC. Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country and region, and rated a Beta + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[6] Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War, and its cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Names 2 Prehistory 2.1 Prehistory 3 History 3.1 Phoenician period 3.2 Hellenistic period 3.3 Roman period 3.4 Middle Ages 3.5 Ottoman rule 3.5.1 Vilayet of Beirut 3.6 Modern era 3.6.1 Capital of Lebanon 4 Geography 4.1 Climate 4.2 Environmental issues 4.3 Quarters and sectors 5 Demographics 5.1 Religion 6 Beirut Central District 7 Economy 7.1 Banking and finance 7.2 Tourism 8 Government 8.1 International organisations 9 Education 10 Transportation 11 Culture 11.1 Museums 11.2 Tourism 11.3 Media 11.4 Sports 11.5 Art and fashion 12 Gallery 13 Twin towns and sister cities 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Bibliography 17 External links Names The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name Bayrūt (بيروت). The same name's transcription into French is Beyrouth, which was sometimes used during Lebanon's French occupation. The Arabic name derives from Phoenician be'rūt (𐤁𐤀𐤓𐤕 b'rt). This was a modification of the Canaanite and Phoenician word be'rūt, meaning "the wells", in reference to the site's accessible water table.[10][11] The name is first attested in the 14th century BC, when it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform[11] tablets of the Amarna letters,[12] letters sent by King Ammunira of Biruta[13] to Amenhotep III or Amenhotep IV of Egypt.[14] Biruta was also mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos.[15] The Greeks hellenised the name as Bērytós (Ancient Greek: Βηρυτός), which the Romans latinised as Berytus.[a] When it attained the status of a Roman colony, it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended to Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus to include its imperial sponsors. At the time of the crusades, the city was known in French as Barut or Baruth. Prehistory Canaanean Blade. Suggested to be part of a javelin. Fresh grey flint, both sides showing pressure flaking. Somewhat narrower at the base, suggesting a haft. Polished at the extreme point. Found on land of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. Prehistory Beirut was settled more than 5,000 years ago[17] and the area had been inhabited for far longer. Several prehistoric archaeological sites have been discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools of sequential periods dating from the Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Beirut I (Minet el-Hosn) was listed as "the town of Beirut" (French: Beyrouth ville) by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orient and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut.[18][19] The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900.[20] The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.[21] Beirut II (Umm el-Khatib) was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres (328 feet) above sea level. The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948.[21] Beirut III (Furn esh-Shebbak), listed as Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticised by Lorraine Copeland.[21] P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanisation of the area.[22] Beirut IV (Furn esh-Shebbak, river banks) was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[20] Raoul Describes[23] and Auguste Bergy.[22] Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. Many Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Beirut V (Nahr Beirut, Beirut River) was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits.[24] The area has now been built on.[25] Beirut VI (Patriarchate) was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the early or middle Neolithic periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library.[21] Beirut VII, the Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer.[21] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.[26] History See also: Timeline of Beirut The earliest settlement of Beirut was on an island in the Beirut River, but the channel that separated it from the banks silted up and the island ceased to be. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman remains.[27] Phoenician period Main article: Phoenician port of Beirut The Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port or harbour was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city.[28] Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered around 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) to the west in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorisation was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching in Marburg, Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may never be known, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press.[29][30][31] Hellenistic period In 140 BC, the Phoenician city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his conflict with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Hellenistic Seleucid monarchy. Laodicea in Phoenicia was built upon the same site on a more conventional Hellenistic plan. Present-day Beirut overlies this ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the civil war 1991. The salvage excavations after 1993 have yielded new insights into the layout and history of this period of Beirut's history. Public architecture included several areas and buildings.[32] Mid-1st-century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune;[33] on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was later taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. After a state of civil war and decline the Seleucid Empire faced, King Tigranes the Great of the Kingdom of Armenia conquered Beirut and placed it under effective Armenian control. However, after the Battle of Tigranocerta, Armenia forever lost their holdings in Syria and Beirut was conquered by Roman general Pompey. Roman period Roman Columns of Basilica near the Forum of Berytus Main article: Berytus Laodicea was conquered by Pompey in 64 BC and the name Berytus was restored to it. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[34][35][36] From the 1st century BC, the Bekaa Valley served as a source of grain for the Roman provinces of the Levant and even for Rome itself. Under Claudius, Berytus expanded to reach the Bekaa Valley and include Heliopolis (Baalbek). The city was settled by Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the region. As a result of this settlement, the city quickly became Romanized, and the city became the only mainly Latin-speaking area in the Syria-Phoenicia province.[37] In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colony, one of four in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Italian rights (ius Italicum) exempting its citizens from imperial taxation. Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.[37] Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus: the 5th Macedonian and the 3rd Gallic Legions.[38] Berytus's law school was widely known;[39] two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, were natives of Phoenicia and taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in AD 533 Justinian recognised the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. In 551, a major earthquake struck Berytus,[11][34][40] causing widespread damage. The earthquake reduced cities along the coast to ruins and killed many, 30,000 in Berytus alone by some measurements.[41] As a result, the students of the law school were transferred to Sidon.[42] Salvage excavations since 1993 have yielded new insights in the layout and history of Roman Berytus. Public architecture included several bath complexes, Colonnaded Streets, a circus and theatre;[32] residential areas were excavated in the Garden of Forgiveness, Martyrs' Square and the Beirut Souks.[43] View of Beirut with snow-capped Mount Sannine in the background – 19th century Middle Ages Beirut was conquered by the Muslims in 635.[35][44] Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin el Fil in Beirut in 759. From this principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon.[citation needed] As a trading centre of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre (in modern-day Israel) during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291, the town and Lordship of Beirut was part of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city was taken by Saladin in 1187 and recaptured in 1197 by Henry I of Brabant as part of the German Crusade of 1197. John of Ibelin, known as the Old Lord of Beirut, was granted the lordship of the city in 1204. He rebuilt the city after its destruction by the Ayyubids and also built the House of Ibelin palace in Beirut.[44] Beirut Castle and waterfront, 1868 Ottoman rule Pine Forest of Beirut, 1914 Under the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520), the Ottomans conquered Syria including present-day Lebanon. Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[45] One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century, but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763.[46] With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[47] Beirut began its revival. View of Beirut's Grand Serail- circa 1930 By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial centre. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as the Sursock family, to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus.[48] This in turn altered the religious composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future sectarian and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realisation amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[49] After petitions by the local bourgeois, the governor of Syria Vilayet Mehmed Rashid Pasha authorized the establishment of the Beirut Municipal Council,[50] the first municipality established in the Arab provinces of the Empire.[51] The council was elected by an assembly of city notables and played an instrumental role governing the city through the following decades.[50] Vilayet of Beirut In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria,[52] including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[53] By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned educational institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners.[46] At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city. An aerial panoramic view of Beirut in the last third of the 19th century In his 2003 book entitled Beirut and its Seven Families, Dr. Yussef Bin Ahmad Bin Ali Al Husseini says: The seven families of Beirut are the families who bonded among each other and made the famous historical agreement with the governor of the Syrian Coast in 1351 to protect and defend the city of Beirut and its shores, and chase the invaders and stop their progress towards it. Modern era Capital of Lebanon Saint Nicholas staircase in Ashrafieh Ras Beirut and the Mediterranean Sea Nightlife scene in Badaro After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven,[54][55] especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom. This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country,[56][57] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[58] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly shelled the eastern quarter of the city,[59] but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War. Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers.[60][61][62] Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, whose urban agglomeration was mainly constituted during war time through an anarchic urban development[63] stretching along the littoral corridor and its nearby heights. By the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual centre in the Middle East and as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has hosted both the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup, and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant nine times: 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002, and 2016. Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut.[64][65] A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut.[66][67] The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[68] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[69] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.[70] During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantly Shiite southern suburbs of Beirut. On 12 July 2006, the "Operation Truthful Promise" carried out by Hezbollah ended with 8 Israeli deaths and 6 injuries. In response, the IDF targeted Hezbollah's main media outlets. There were then artillery raids against targets in southern Lebanon, and the Israeli cabinet held Beirut responsible for the attacks. Then on 13 July 2006 Israel began implementing a naval and air blockade over Lebanon; during this blockade Israel bombed the runways at Beirut International Airport and the major Beirut-Damascus highway in Eastern Lebanon.[71] In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army.[72] After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps in Martyrs' Square.[73] On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighbourhood of Achrafiyeh, including Brigadier General Wissam al-Hassan, chief of the Intelligence Bureau of the Internal Security Forces. In addition, 78 others were wounded in the bombing.[74] It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008.[75] On 27 December 2013, a car bomb exploded in the Central District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S. Mohamad Chatah, and wounding 71 others.[76] In the 12 November 2015 Beirut bombings, two suicide bombers detonated explosives outside a mosque and inside a bakery, killing 43 people and injuring 200. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant immediately claimed responsibility for the attacks.[77][78] On 4 August 2020, a massive explosion in the Port of Beirut resulted in the death of at least 203 people (with an additional three missing)[79] and the wounding of more than 6,500. Foreigners from at least 22 countries were among the casualties. Furthermore, at least 108 Bangladeshis were injured in the blasts, making them the most affected foreign community. The cause of the blast is believed to be from government-confiscated and stored ammonium nitrate.[80] As many as 300,000 people have been left homeless by the explosion.[81] Protesters in Lebanon called on the government on 8 August 2020 for the end of the alleged negligence that resulted in the 4 August explosion.[82] On 10 August 2020, as a result of the protests, Prime Minister Hassan Diab announced his resignation.[83] Weeks later, a huge fire erupted in an oil and tyre warehouse in the port's duty-free zone, on 10 September 2020.[84] Geography Pigeon Rock (Raouché) Beirut seen from SPOT satellite Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea.[85] It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[85] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another. Climate Beirut has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) characterised by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to be moderated by the sea. Autumn and spring are warm, but short. Winter is mild and rainy. Summer is prolonged, hot and muggy. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea. The average annual rainfall is 825 millimetres (32.5 in), with the large majority of it falling from October to April. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over many days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall occurs due to the region's high altitudes. Hail (which can often be heavy) occurs a few times per year, mostly during winter. Climate data for Beirut International Airport Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 27.9 (82.2) 30.5 (86.9) 36.6 (97.9) 39.3 (102.7) 39.0 (102.2) 40.0 (104.0) 40.4 (104.7) 39.5 (103.1) 37.5 (99.5) 37.0 (98.6) 33.1 (91.6) 30.0 (86.0) 40.4 (104.7) Average high °C (°F) 17.4 (63.3) 17.5 (63.5) 19.6 (67.3) 22.6 (72.7) 25.4 (77.7) 27.9 (82.2) 30.0 (86.0) 30.7 (87.3) 29.8 (85.6) 27.5 (81.5) 23.2 (73.8) 19.4 (66.9) 24.3 (75.7) Daily mean °C (°F) 14.0 (57.2) 14.0 (57.2) 16.0 (60.8) 18.7 (65.7) 21.7 (71.1) 24.9 (76.8) 27.1 (80.8) 27.8 (82.0) 26.8 (80.2) 24.1 (75.4) 19.5 (67.1) 15.8 (60.4) 20.9 (69.6) Average low °C (°F) 11.2 (52.2) 11.0 (51.8) 12.6 (54.7) 15.2 (59.4) 18.2 (64.8) 21.6 (70.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.8 (76.6) 23.7 (74.7) 21.0 (69.8) 16.3 (61.3) 12.9 (55.2) 17.7 (63.9) Record low °C (°F) 0.8 (33.4) 3.0 (37.4) 0.2 (32.4) 7.6 (45.7) 10.0 (50.0) 15.0 (59.0) 18.0 (64.4) 19.0 (66.2) 17.0 (62.6) 11.1 (52.0) 7.0 (44.6) 4.6 (40.3) 0.2 (32.4) Average precipitation mm (inches) 154 (6.1) 127 (5.0) 84 (3.3) 31 (1.2) 11 (0.4) 1 (0.0) 0.3 (0.01) 0 (0) 5 (0.2) 60 (2.4) 115 (4.5) 141 (5.6) 730 (28.7) Average rainy days 12 10 8 5 2 2 0.04 0.1 1 4 7 11 62 Average relative humidity (%) 64 64 64 66 70 71 72 71 65 62 60 63 66 Mean monthly sunshine hours 131 143 191 243 310 348 360 334 288 245 200 147 2,940 Source 1: Pogodaiklimat.ru[86] Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun 1931–1960)[87] Beirut mean sea temperature[88] Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) 21.3 °C (70.3 °F) 24.9 °C (76.8 °F) 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) 28.1 °C (82.6 °F) 26.0 °C (78.8 °F) 22.6 °C (72.7 °F) 20.1 °C (68.2 °F) Environmental issues Main article: Marine environmental issues in Lebanon Lebanon, especially Beirut and its suburbs, suffered a massive garbage crisis, mainly from July 2015 up to March 2016. The issue began when authorities shut down the main landfill site originally used for Beirut's garbage south-east of the city and failed to provide any alternative solutions for months. As a result, garbage mounted in the streets in Greater Beirut and caused protests to erupt, which sometimes invoked police action. This problem was commonly blamed on the country's political situation. This garbage crisis birthed a movement called "You Stink" which was directed at the country's politicians. In March 2016, the government finally came up with a so-called temporary solution to establish two new landfills East and South of the city to store the garbage, while several municipalities across the country, in an unprecedented move, began recycling and managing waste more efficiently, building waste-management facilities and relying on themselves rather than the central government. Moreover, Beirut has a lack of green areas with just two main public gardens (sanayeh and horch Beirut). In fact, concrete roofs cover 80% of the capital area.[89] Quarters and sectors Main article: List of places in Beirut Map of the 12 quarters of Beirut Beirut is divided into 12 quarters (quartiers):[90] Achrafieh Dar Mreisse Bachoura Mazraa (with the neighbourhood Badaro) Medawar (with the neighbourhood Mar Mikhaël) Minet El Hosn Moussaitbeh (with Ramlet al-Baida) Port Ras Beirut Remeil Saifi Zuqaq al-Blat These quarters are divided into 59 sectors (secteurs).[91] Badaro is an edgy, bohemian style neighbourhood[citation needed], within the green district of Beirut (secteur du parc) which also include the Beirut Hippodrome and the Beirut Pine Forest and the French ambassador's Pine Residence. It is one of Beirut's favourite hip nightlife destination.[citation needed] Two of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Bourj el-Barajneh and Shatila. There is also one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias.[92] Southern suburban districts include Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municipality), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital.[92] Of the 15 unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut[93] and was the scene of a massacre during the civil war.[citation needed] People in Lebanon often use different names for the same geographic locations, and few people rely on official, government-provided street numbers. Instead, historic and commercial landmarks are more commonly used.[citation needed] Demographics No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[94] but estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940[95] through 1,303,129[96] to as high as 2,200,000 as part of Greater Beirut.[3][97] Religion See also: Religion in Lebanon, Shia Islam in Lebanon, Sunni Islam in Lebanon, Christianity in Lebanon, Secularism in Lebanon, and Jews in Lebanon Religion in Beirut (2018 Elections Results) Islam (60%) Christianity (37.4%) Druze (1.1%) Judaism (0.9%) Other (0.6%) Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[98] The city boasts significant Muslim and Christian communities. In Beirut there are 18 recognised religious groups.[99] At the end of the civil war the Copts became another recognised confession, bringing the total number to eighteen. The original seventeen included three Muslim sects: Shi'a, Sunni, and 'Alawi; one Druze sect; Twelve Christian sects: Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholics, Protestant Evangelicals, and other Christian denominations non-native to Lebanon like Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Assyrians (Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic), Copts; and Jews (very few remain in Lebanon today, but children of Lebanese Jewish parents may register as citizens at Lebanese Embassies.[100]) Briefly, Christians are 35% of Beirut, Muslims 63%, 1% Druze, 1% others. Church of Saint George Maronite and Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque coexist side by side in Downtown Beirut Cathedral of St Elias and St Gregory the Illuminator in Downtown Beirut Cathedral of St. George's Greek Orthodox in Downtown Beirut Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Downtown Beirut Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognised by Lebanese civil authorities. Before the civil war the neighbourhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict.[101] East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni Muslim majority with small minorities of Shia, Christians and Druze. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian. The city is also home to a small number of Latin Rite Roman Catholics in the form of an apostolic vicariate with Archbishop Paul Dahdah, OCD, as the apostolic vicar. Beirut Central District Main article: Beirut Central District The Beirut Central District (BCD) or Centre Ville is the name given to Beirut's historical and geographical core by "Solidere", the "vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country."[102] It is an area thousands of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments.[103] Due to the devastation incurred on the city centre from the Lebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since, Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organisations, reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city centre.[104] Roman baths park in Downtown Beirut. Assessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centres.[105] The district's total area is 4,690,000 square metres (50,482,740 square feet), the majority of which is dedicated to residential space (1,924,000 square metres or 20,709,764 square feet).[106] The Beirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totalling to an area of 96 acres (39 ha) of open spaces. The central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in the Beirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters. Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are the Central District's old medieval market, recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterised the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades.[107] Solidere, the company responsible for the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organises music and entertainment events all throughout the year like the Beirut Marathon, Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival. However, the means of urban development in this particular area of the city was subject to much criticism and controversy. Rafic Hariri, who would later become prime minister, was the majority stakeholder of the company, which raises concerns of conflict of interest in the context of a public-private partnership.[108] Many of the expropriations that have made the project possible have been made at undervalued land rates, and partly paid in company share. Strict urbanisation laws were put in order to oblige people to sell and not renovate themselves.[109] Today, Solidere acts as a de facto municipality, thus this quarter of the city is effectively privatised. It is for example forbidden to ride bikes on Zeituna Bay, a marina where many restaurants are located, and these laws are enforced by private security guards not national or municipal police. The project was also criticised for destroying some of the city's architectural and cultural heritage. "Among the hundreds of destroyed buildings were "the last Ottoman and medieval remains in Beirut" wrote American University of Beirut professor Nabil Beyhum in the Journal The Beirut Review in 1992. Much of the damage had been done through unapproved demolitions in the 1980s and early 1990s, bringing down "some of the capital's most significant buildings and structures," wrote UCLA professor Saree Makdisi in the journal, Critical Inquiry, in 1997.".[110] Moreover, many of the traditional privately owned shops in the Beirut Downtown were replaced by luxury outlets and high-end restaurants that only few people could afford. And most of public spaces promised by Solidere since the start of the reconstruction, such as "The Garden of Forgiveness", a central park, and an archaeological museum, remain unfinished until today,[when?] putting into question the actual benefit of the project to the population.[110] Finally, the actual success of the project has recently[when?] been in doubt, given that large quarters of the BCD are today empty, due to strong military presence, the Nejmeh Square where the parliament is located is most frequently completely deserted, and the business located there have mostly moved.[111] Economy Cafés in downtown Beirut Beirut's economy is service-oriented with the main growth sectors being banking and tourism. In an area dominated by authoritarian or militarist regimes, the Lebanese capital was generally regarded as a haven of libertarianism, though a precarious one.[citation needed] With its seaport and airport—coupled with Lebanon's free economic and foreign exchange system, solid gold-backed currency, banking-secrecy law, and favourable interest rates—Beirut became an established banking centre for Arab wealth, much of which was invested in construction, commercial enterprise, and industry (mostly the manufacture of textiles and shoes, food processing, and printing).[112] The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries. During that period, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[113] Zaitunay Bay Beirut is the focal point of the Economy of Lebanon. The capital hosts the headquarters of Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, the Beirut Stock Exchange, the head office of Lebanon's flag-carrier Middle East Airlines, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, the Union of Arab Banks, and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges.[114] Banking and finance System-search.svg The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is about Lebanese Liquidity Crisis.. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ras Beirut 1983 The Banking System is the backbone of the local economy with a balance sheet of $152 billion at the end of 2012, nearing 3.5 times the GDP estimated at $43 billion by the IMF.[115] Bank deposits also increased in 2012 by 8% to 125 billion dollars, 82 percent of the sector's assets. "Banks are still attracting deposits because the interest rates offered are higher than the ones in Europe and the United States", says Marwan Mikhael, head of research at BLOM Bank.[116] Beirut's foreign reserves were still close to an all-time high when they reached $32.5 billion in 2011 and analysts say that the Central Bank can cover nearly 80 percent of the Lebanese currency in the market. This means that the Central Bank can easily cope with any unforeseen crisis in the future thanks to the massive foreign currency reserves. [117] The Lebanese banking system is endowed with several characteristics that promote the role of Beirut as a regional financial centre, in terms of ensuring protection for foreign capital and earnings. The Lebanese currency is fully convertible and can be exchanged freely with any other currency. Moreover, no restrictions are put on the free flow of capital and earnings into and out of the Lebanese economy. The passing of the banking secrecy law on 3 September 1956, subjected all banks established in Lebanon as well as foreign banks' branches to the "secret of the profession". Both article 16 of law No. 282 dated 30 December 1993 and article 12 of decree No. 5451 dated 26 August 1994, offer exemptions from income tax on all interest and revenues earned on all types of accounts opened in Lebanese banks. On the first of April 1975, decree No. 29 established a free banking zone by granting the Lebanese government the right to exempt non-residents' deposits and liabilities in foreign currency from: the income tax on interest earned, the required reserves imposed by the Banque Du Liban by virtue of article 76 of the Code of Money and Credit, the premium of deposit guarantee imposed on bank deposits to the profit of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution.[118] Tourism Raouché The tourism industry in Beirut has been historically important to the local economy and remains to this day to be a major source of revenue for the city, and Lebanon in general. Before the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut was widely regarded as the "Paris of the Middle East,"[119] often cited as a financial and business hub where visitors could experience the Levantine Mediterranean culture. Beirut's diverse atmosphere and ancient history make it an important destination which is slowly rebuilding itself after continued turmoil. However, in recent times, certain countries, such as the United States, have frequently placed Lebanon, and Beirut in particular, on their travel warnings lists due to the many car bombings and orchestrated acts of political violence.[120][121][122] Pigeon Rocks Sunset According to the 2012 tourist statistics, 34% of the tourists in Beirut came from states within the Arab League, 33% came from European countries (mainly France, Germany, and Britain), and 16% from the Americas (about half of which are from the United States).[123] The largely pedestrianised Beirut Central District is the core of the Beirut tourism scene. The district is a cluster of stone-façade buildings lining arcaded streets and radial alleyways. The architecture of the area is a mix of French Architecture and Venetian Gothic architecture mixed with Arabesque and Ottoman Architecture. The district contains numerous old mosques and crusader churches, as well as uncovered remnants and ruins of the Roman era. The District contains dozens of restaurants, cafes and pubs, as well as a wide range of shopping stores mainly in Beirut Souks. High-rise hotels and towers line the district's New Waterfront, marina and seaside promenade. Another popular tourist destination in Beirut is the Corniche Beirut, a 4.8 km (3 mi) pedestrian promenade that encircles the capital's seafront from the Saint George Bay in the north all the way to Avenue de Paris and Avenue General de Gaulle south of the city. The corniche reaches its maximum height above sea level at Raouché, a high-rise residential neighbourhood rising over a giant white limestone cliff and facing the recognisable off-shore Raouché Rocks. Badaro is one of Beirut's most appealing neighbourhoods, a lovely place to stroll during daytime and a destination for going out in the evening. Badaro is within Beirut's green district with a 75-acre (30-hectare) public park (The Beirut Pine forest) and a 50-acre (20-hectare) hippodrome. It is a neighbourhood on a very human scale with small groceries around every corner. The neighbourhood residents, a mix of old impoverished Christian bourgeoisie, bohemian style people in their 30s and well-established urban professionals, are loyal to local bakery and pastry shops. Because of the blossoming café and bar scene it has become lately a hip destination for Beirut's young and restless but old Beirutis remember that Badaro was already Beirut's version of the Village in the swinging sixties.[citation needed] Groceries and eateries can be found on almost every street of the area.[citation needed] There are dozens of restaurants, pubs and footpath cafés of virtually every style.[citation needed] Badaro "Village" thrives on local residents, day-trippers and hipsters from all over Beirut, office employees and many expatriates.[citation needed] Hamra Street is a long cobblestone street connecting the Beirut Central District with the coastal Raouche area. The street is a large concentration of shopping stores, boutiques, restaurants, banks, street vendors, footpath cafes, newspaper kiosks, and a booming nightlife spurred by students from the neighbouring American University of Beirut. The AUB campus is another popular visitor destination, composed of a cluster of 19th century red-roofed buildings dispersed on a wooded hillside overlooking the Mediterranean. Gemmayzeh is Beirut's artistic bohemian quarter, full of narrow streets and historic buildings from the French era. It is located East of the Beirut Central District, bordering the Saifi Village. The neighborhood is well known for its trendy bars and pubs, cafes, restaurants and lounges; most are directly located on Rue Gouraud, the main thoroughfare that cuts through the middle of the district. Travel + Leisure magazine called Gemmayzeh "SoHo by the Sea," due to its colorful and chic cafés amid 1950s apartment buildings and hole-in-the-wall shops.[124] However, Gemmayzeh received the most damage by the Beirut explosion in 2020.[125] Downtown Beirut Mosque Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[126] In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked the 9th best city in the world.[127] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[128] The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009.[129] 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totalling $6.5 billion.[130] Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai.[131] Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[132] Like other forms of tourism, medical tourism in Lebanon is on the rise recently. Although visitors from neighbouring Arab nations make up the bulk of medical tourism patients here due to its proximity, Beirut is strongly trying to woo more Southern Europeans, Asians and North Americans to its land. Its Agency for Investment Development in Lebanon reports that growth in the medical tourism industry is growing by up to 30% a year since 2009. The country's tourism ministry is working closely with the medical sector and top-class hotels to create an organised, quality medical destination.[133] Major hotel and spa chains work with local clinics, travel agencies and the tourism ministry to create comprehensive healthcare and recuperation packages for foreign visitors. The government is highly involved in this industry and strives to make the process as easy as possible.[134] Cosmetic surgery is a major component of medical tourism in Lebanon. Most of the foreign patients come for routine operations like plastic surgery, dental or eye surgery, and Beirut's hospitals are also capable of performing specialised procedures such as internal bypass surgery and other technical treatments. Its top clinics and hospitals like Sahel General are equipped to handle the full range of surgical procedures. Beirut-based Clemenceau Medical Center (CMC), affiliated with Johns Hopkins International, was ranked one of the world's top ten best hospitals for medical tourism in 2012.[135] Government Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[136] The Lebanese Parliament,[137] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[138] Beirut Governorate is one of eight mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, or governorate). Name Took office Left office 1 Kamel Hamieh 1936 1941 2 Nicholas Rizk 1946 1952 3 George Assi 1952 1956 4 Bachour Haddad 1956 1958 5 Philip Boulos 1959 1960 6 Emile Yanni 1960 1967 7 Shafic Bou Haydar 1967 1977 8 Mitri El Nammar 1977 1987 9 George Smaha 1987 1991 10 Nayef El Malouf 1992 1995 11 Nicholas Saba 1995 1999 12 Jacob Sarraf 1999 2005 13 Nassif Kaloush 2005 2008 14 Rachid Ammoury Maalouf 2008 2015 15 Jamal Itani 2016 Present Facade of the Beirut City Hall The Grand Serail Lebanese Parliament United Nations Lebanon headquarters International organisations The city is home to numerous international organisations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut,[139][140] The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO),[141] the Union of Arab Banks[142] and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges[143] are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO)[144] and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)[145] both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world. Education Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by universities, colleges and technical and vocational institutes. The American University of Beirut and Université Saint-Joseph (USJ), are the oldest respectively English medium and French medium universities in the country. The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut.[146] Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies and considered lately one of the top universities in the Middle East.[147][148][149][150][151] Beirut is also home to the American University of Science and Technology (AUST), University of Balamand, École Supérieure des Affaires (ESA), Beirut Arab University (BAU), Haigazian University (HU), Lebanese International University (LIU), as well as the Notre Dame University – Louaize (NDU), Université La Sagesse (ULS). Notre Dame University (NDU)'s degrees are becoming more and more valuable with time. NDU received its accreditation from NIASC in 2015. The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.[146] Among the private secondary schools in Beirut are Lycee Abdel Kader, Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, American Community School, International College, Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College,[152] Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, Collège Protestant Français, Armenian Evangelical Central High School, German School of Beirut, and the Armenian Hamazkayin Arslanian College. AUB established in 1866 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Saint Joseph University, or Université Saint-Joseph, founded by the Jesuits in 1875 American University of Science and Technology, established in Beirut in 1989 Haigazian University was founded in 1955 by the Armenian Evangelical community Global University in Beirut École supérieure des affaires, founded in 1996 as a joint co-operation between the Paris Chamber of Commerce (Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris) and the Bank of Lebanon Transportation Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[153] Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.[154] The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congestion-choked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars.[citation needed] Beirut has also private buses that are provided by the Lebanese Commuting Company. In 2017, Beirut introduced a bike sharing service in certain areas of the city. Culture The Garden Show & Spring Festival at the Beirut Hippodrome The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilisations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading centre of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire. Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres,[155][156] which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.[157][158] In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO.[159] Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[160] Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[161] and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as "The Alleyway" in Hamra Street. Museums The National Museum of Beirut Sursock Museum The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[162] The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artefacts from Lebanon and neighbouring countries.[163] Sursock Museum was built by the illustrious Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa for Nicolas Sursock, and then donated to the Lebanese state upon his death. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings, numerous works of Islamic art and classic Italian paintings, while temporary exhibitions are also shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques.[164][165] Planet Discovery is a children's science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[166] The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.[167] In October 2013, Mim Museum, a private mineral museum, opened its doors to the public. It has on display some 2000 minerals from more than 70 countries. Mim museum's collection is considered to be one of the world's paramount private collection for the variety and quality of its minerals.[168][169] A didactic circuit, accompanied by screens showing films and scientific applications of mineralogy, will reveal a world of unsuspected marvels—priceless both from an aesthetic and scientific point of view. Mimodactylus libanensis "mimo", the fossil of a pterodactyl is featured in a special wing. This one-of-a-kind complete specimen in the Middle-East was found in Lebanon. It is promoted by means of state-of-the-art modern techniques: a hologram, an auto-stereoscopic movie, a full-scale reconstitution and a game "fly with mimo" – an entertainment that delights children and adults. Moreover, Mim hosts a thematic exhibition of 200 marine fossils. "Fish’n’Stone" was organised with the collaboration of Mémoire du Temps. Known throughout the world, those fossils were quarried in the Lebanese mountains. The history of the fossil formation is shown through an animation that submerses you in the marine life – a time capsule that takes you in a journey to some 100 million of years ago. Tourism Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009,[129] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year.[170] According to a 2010 study by the American global consulting firm Mercer comparing high-end items such as upscale residential areas and entertainment venues, Beirut was ranked as the 4th most expensive city in the Middle East and 15th among the Upper Middle Income Countries included in the survey.[171] Beirut came in first place regionally and 10th place internationally in a 2010 study by "EuroCost International" about the rental markets for high quality housing.[172][173] The 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totalling $6.5 billion.[130] Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East.[131] In 2013, Condé Nast Traveller ranked Beirut in the top 20 best cities in the world.[174] On 7 December 2014, Beirut was selected to be among the New 7 Wonders of Cities, along with Doha, Durban, La Paz, Havana, Kuala Lumpur and Vigan.[175] The campaign was held by New 7 Wonders.[176] In 2016, Yahoo listed Beirut as the best international city for food.[177] Travel and Leisure ranked Beirut in the top 15 World's best cities.[178] It was voted the must-visit city for the year 2019 by World Tourists.[citation needed] Media Beirut is a main centre for the television, radio stations, newspaper, and book publishing industries. Television stations based in Beirut include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, Tele Lumiere (Catholic TV), Future TV, New TV, NBN, ANB and Saudi TV 1 on 33 UHF and MBC 1, MBC 4, MBC Action, Fox, Al Jazeera, Rotana, OSN First, OSN News, Al Yawm and Arabic Series Channel on 45 UHF. Radio Stations include Mix FM Lebanon, Virgin Radio Lebanon, Radio One Lebanon, Sawt el Ghad, RLL, Jaras Scoop, NRJ Lebanon... Newspapers include An-Nahar, Al Joumhouria, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al-Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar, Al Sharq. Newspapers and magazines published in French include L'Orient Le Jour (since 1970), La Revue Du Liban, Al Balad-French Version, Al Intiqad, Magazine L'Hebdo and La Commerce Du Levant. English newspapers published in Beirut are The Daily Star, Executive Magazine (weekly), Beirut Online, Beirut Times (weekly) and Monday Morning. Sports The Lebanese capital hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1959, FIBA Asia Champions Cup in 1999, 2000, 2012, the AFC Asian Cup in 2000, and the FIBA Asia Cup in 2010. Beirut was the host city for the 6th Annual Games of the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Beirut also hosted the Pan Arab Games in 1957, 1997, and did so again in 2015. In 2017, Beirut also hosted the 2017 FIBA Asia Cup. Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup.[179][180] There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium. Basketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently, 4 Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Homenetmen Beirut and Beirut. Other sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut. Lebanon men's national ice hockey team plays out of Montreal, in Canada. Art and fashion Beirut Souks shopping mall There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. The inauguration of the Beirut Art Center, a non-profit association, space and platform dedicated to contemporary art in Lebanon,[181] in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, book store, café and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs. A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[182] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab, Yara Farhat, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.[182] Beirut is also the home for a dynamic street art scene that has developed after the Lebanese Civil War, one of the most notable street artists is Yazan Halwani who is known to produce the largest murals on the walls of Beirut in areas such as Gemmayzeh, Hamra, Verdun and Achrafieh.[183] Beirut is also international artists' concert tour stop city. Artists like Shakira, Mariah Carey, Enrique Iglesias, Andrea Bocelli, Pitbull, Engelbert Humperdinck, Scorpions, and many more have included Beirut on their concert tours
Emir Fouad Abdullah Chehab (Arabic: فُؤادْ عبد الله شِهاب; also transliterated Fuad Shihab; 19 March 1902 – 25 April 1973) was a Lebanese politician and army general who served as the third President of Lebanon from 23 September 1958 to 22 September 1964. Born in Ghazir to a family that traced its origins to nobility, Chehab joined the French Army in 1919. After Lebanon's independence from France, he was tasked to organize the armed forces and became the first Commander of the Army in 1946 after its establishment. He was appointed as Prime Minister by the outgoing president Bechara El Khoury who resigned due to widespread demonstrations against his administration, with the role of organizing the next presidential election. He was the acting president as well until Camille Chamoun was elected. During the 1958 Lebanon crisis between Chamoun and Muslim leaders, he prevented the army from siding with the government or the opposition, and refused any request to do so. This decision helped keep the army unified and limited losses. He was elected as president of Lebanon in the 1958 election as the "consensus option", both internationally and locally, to succeed Chamoun. As president, Chehab is credited for introducing reforms and social development projects and building modern state instutitions.[1] He stepped down from office in 1964 and refused to seek a second term. His approaches and policies, known as "Chehabism" influenced later presidents, specifically Charles Helou and Élias Serkis. Contents 1 Early life 2 Military career 3 Presidency 4 Later life 5 Legacy 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Early life Born in 1902,[2] Chehab was the eldest son of Abdullah Chehab and Badiaa Hbeich, and had two younger brothers, Farid and Chakib. He was a member of the Chehab family, a dynasty which ruled Mount Lebanon during Ottoman rule until the establishment of Mutasarrifate in 1842. His great-grandfather, Hassan Chehab, was the eldest brother of Bashir Shihab II, who ruled Lebanon for 40 years.[3] Chehab's father Abdullah tried to immigrate to the United States in 1910, but the family never heard from him again. He was last seen in Marseille and it has been speculated that he died while on a ship transporting him there.[4] Military career Chehab became commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces in 1945,[2] at which time Lebanon gained its independence upon the end of the French mandate and military presence. In 1952, Chehab refused to allow the army to interfere in the uprising that forced Lebanese President Bechara El Khoury to resign. Chehab was then appointed president with the duty to ensure an emergency democratic presidential election. Four days later, Camille Chamoun was elected to succeed El Khoury. The gerrymandering and the alleged electoral fraud of the 1957 parliamentary election, followed by the dismissal of several pro-Arab ministers, sparked a violent Muslim revolt that came to be known as the Lebanon crisis of 1958. The tensions that were exposed would result in a civil war 17 years later (1975–1991). Like in 1952, Chehab, who remained commander of the army, refused to allow the military to interfere. He thus prevented supporters of both the opposition and the government from assuming positions of strategic importance, such as airports and government buildings. Presidency Two men standing side by side in the forefront, wearing overcoats. Behind them are several men in military uniform or suits and ties standing and saluting or making no gestures. Chehab (left) and United Arab Republic President Gamal Abdel Nasser (to Chehab's left) at the Syrian–Lebanese border during talks to end the crisis in Lebanon To quell the uprising, Chamoun, with the help of his assistant Tanner Wilhelm Hale, requested American intervention, and US Marines soon landed in Beirut. Widely trusted by the Muslims for his impartiality and now supported by the Americans, Chehab was chosen as the consensus candidate to succeed Chamoun as president to restore peace to the country. On taking office, Chehab declared, "The revolution has no winners and no losers". Following a path of moderation and co-operating closely with the various religious groups, and with both secular and religious forces, Chehab was able to cool tensions and bring stability back to the nation. In 1960, two years into his six-year presidential mandate, seeing that the country had been stabilised and having paved the way for reforms, Chehab offered to resign. However, he was persuaded by members of the Lebanese Parliament to remain in office for the rest of his mandate. In 1961, he suppressed an attempted coup by the Syrian Social Nationalist Party, which had been infuriated over his associations with the Nasser regime. To hinder such future threats, he strengthened the Lebanese intelligence and security services to prevent any further foreign interference in Lebanese internal affairs. Professor As'ad AbuKhalil criticized his rule after the coup, calling it a "police state".[5] Chehab's rule was a delicate balancing act of maintaining relative harmony between the nation's Christian and Muslim populations. He followed the path and principles of dialogue and moderation coupled with public reforms, which came to be known as Chehabism. Generally deeply respected for his honesty and integrity, Chehab is credited with a number of reform plans and regulations to create a modern administration and efficient public services. That eventually brought him into conflict with the traditional feudal, confessional, and clan-based politicians, who saw their grip on power diminishing. In 1964, Chehab, whose presence at the head of the country was still seen by many as the best option for stability and future reforms, refused to allow the Lebanese Constitution to be amended to permit him to run for another presidential term. He backed the candidacy of Charles Helou, who became the next president. Chehab later became dissatisfied with Helou's presidency over the perceived mishandling of the armed presence of Palestinian guerrillas in Southern Lebanon and over Helou's maneuvers to pave the way for the traditional feudal politicians to regain power. Later life Chehab was widely expected to contest the presidential election of 1970, but in a historical declaration, he declared that his experience in office had convinced him that the people of his country were not ready to put aside traditional or feudal politics or to support him in building a modern state. He chose to endorse his protégé, Elias Sarkis, instead. In the closest vote in Lebanese history, Sarkis lost the election to the feudal leader Suleiman Frangieh by a single vote in the National Assembly. The election was regarded as a defeat for the old statesman and marked the end of the Chehabist reforms and era. The first months of the Frangieh mandate saw the dismantling of the country's intelligence and security services, which had been built by Chehab. They were feared and accused of maintaining a strong grip on political life. That, however, allowed rapidly increasing multiple foreign interference in the internal affairs of the country, soon manifesting itself into a Palestinian military presence in 1973 and the onset of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975. Fouad Chehab died in Beirut in April 1973, at the age of 71. Many look at his era as being marked by statehood and the rule of law. Legacy Chehab is seen as the greatest president of the country by several politicians such as Raymond Eddé,[6] journalists such as Samir Atallah and Jihad Al Khazen,[7][8] and commentators such as Ziad Rahbani.[9] Sheikh Maher Hammoud said that he is the only pre-Taif president who deserved major executive powers.[10] However, Professor As'ad AbuKhalil criticized his rule after the coup, calling it a "police state".[5] السيرة الذاتية لفخامة رئيس الجمهورية اللبنانية اللواء فؤاد شهاب الولاية الرئاسية من 23/9/1958 لغاية 22/9/1964 معلومات شخصية : الاسم : فؤاد عبد الله شهاب تاريخ ومحل الولادة : (19/3/1902 – 25/4/1973)، غزير- كسروان .الوضع العائلي : تأهل من روز رينيه بواتيو مؤهلاته العلمية والثقافية: تلقى علومه في مدرسة الفرير في جونية. مسيرته المهنية والسياسية: .تخرج في 20/9/1923 برتبة ملازم من المدرسة الحربية بدمشق .عين قائداً للجيش اللبناني عند تسلمه للحكومة اللبنانية اعتباراً من 1/8/1945 .كان أول قائد للجيش اللبناني 1/8/1945 .قـاد بصفته القائـد الأعلى للجيش اللبنانـي والقوى التابعـة له الأعمال الحربيـة في فلسطيـن اعتباراً من 14/5/1948 ولغاية 21/3/1949 عين رئيساً للحكومة اللبنانية ووزيراً للداخلية والدفاع الوطني اعتباراً من 18/9/1952 مع احتفاظه بقيادة الجيش اعتباراً من 18/9/1952 ولغاية 30/9/1952. .عين وزيراً للدفاع الوطني اعتباراً من 18/11/1956 وهو محتفظاً بقيادة الجيش .أحيل على التقاعد اعتباراً من 23/9/1958 بمناسبة انتخابه رئيساً للجمهورية تم انتخابه بعد أحداث 1958 خلفا للرئيس كميل شمعون. Biography of His Excellency the President of the Republic of Lebanon , Major General Fouad Shehab Presidential term from 9/23/1958 to 9/22/1964 personal information : Name: Fouad Abdullah Shehab Date and place of birth: (19/3/1902 - 25/4/1973), Ghazir - Kesrouan. Family status: Married by Rose René Poitiou His academic and cultural qualifications: He received his education at the Freire School in Jounieh. His professional and political career: He graduated on 20/9/1923 with the rank of lieutenant from the Military School in Damascus Appointed commander of the Lebanese army upon taking over the Lebanese government starting 1/8/1945 He was the first commander of the Lebanese Army 1/8/1945 In his capacity as the supreme commander of the Lebanese army and the forces affiliated to it, he led the hostilities in Palestine from May 14, 1948 until March 21, 1949. He was appointed Prime Minister of the Lebanese Government and Minister of Interior and National Defense starting 9/18/1952 while retaining the command of the army from 9/18/1952 until 9/30/1952. He was appointed Minister of National Defense starting 11/18/1956 and he retains the command of the army He was retired as of 9/23/1958 on the occasion of his election as President of the Republic He was elected after the events of 1958 to succeed President Camille Chamou what the Lebanese officer did, who violated the constitution once and refused to do so again. Fouad Chehab is not a passing political case. It is a political "approach" that its supporters see as closely related to respecting the constitution and giving priority to the national interest over personal interest. While his opponents are still targeting the police color of his rule through the influence of the "Second Office". On the eve of the presidential elections, which are scheduled to close the door on one presidential era and open the door to another, she was with Prince Abdullah Shehab, the nephew of the late president, who spoke about the stages he experienced during his youth during President Shehab's rule. "Prayer of the Rosary" “Some say that President Shehab was a dictator and ruthless.” Abdullah rejected this saying, saying, “We are not in the process of enumerating the aid that the president was providing, but I will tell you about a story I lived with him. He frequently rejected the idea of execution based on his Christian idea that “God gave her life.” And he is the one who takes it.” And he continued, “On a Sunday we visited him and waited for him for a long time, but he did not leave his office because he was associated with a working meeting with the then-President of the Supreme Judicial Council Badri Meouchi, who was striving hard to obtain his approval to execute one of the wanted men. We returned to the house and the meeting was not over yet. He added: "The next day, I asked his wife about the outcome of the meeting, and she said that it ended at three o'clock in the morning by obtaining his consent without being convinced of the death penalty, but he considered that the criminal should be an example to others." Abdullah talked about the president's relationship with God, saying : "The President used to pray the rosary daily on the "Staha"After his death, I discovered a picture of the Virgin in his desk drawer. the Constitution The Emir believes that "the president's acceptance of the extension was impossible... despite the parliamentary majority's attempts to persuade him to extend it after signing the draft law amending the constitution and the government's unanimous approval of it, but he categorically rejected it, based on three main reasons. If we go out against him once, this will be repeated several times, and secondly, because he is convinced that the military should not enter politics for fear of coups, as was the case in some Arab countries, and thirdly, because his health did not help him in that because he tired a lot during the six years he spent in the presidency. He was working a lot and exhausting himself until late at night." second office Abdullah does not hide the advantages that his military uncle enjoyed and that helped him during his reign, most notably that he served in most Lebanese regions and knows the characteristics of each region and how to deal with its people. He added that he had a second office at his side, which he was following up "without the latter daring to pass on any false information." Abdullah considers that President Shehab was a ruler by his command until the end of the era, but he was subjected to a great injustice by shortening his reign only by the crimes of individuals from the second office. He admitted that "mistakes may have occurred, but they were in the interest of Lebanon and not for a personal interest." under collapse Abdullah talks about an experience he lived with President Shehab during the year 1970 when he was a student at the Jesuit University: “I learned through the students of the Phalangists, the Liberals, the Bloc and the Nationalists that they would bring a president who would overthrow everything President Shehab had done. He said: “They saw how much Fouad Chehab did, and they would not be able to do anything.” Abdullah added, “The president had a feeling at that time that Lebanon was collapsing and that everything that worked for him was in danger, so when he was asked to return to power in 1970, he refused that out of the blue. From the idea that there is no salvation in Lebanon except through changing the political system, and this thing was difficult at that time because the Lebanese were not ready for that and many things hindered them.” Neutrality with the outside Abdullah Shehab finds in the foreign policy adopted by President Shehab an awareness of the sensitivity of the Lebanese sectarian structure, "in Lebanon, Christian, Druze, Sunni and Shiite, and every sect has its regional or international support, and if left to its "comfort", it will work for the benefit of these countries and the proof is what is taking place today in Lebanon ". In the opinion of the emir, his uncle sought during his reign to secure the interests of these countries in Lebanon without directly interfering, saying, "If he was aware that parties from Lebanon were working to carry out a coup in Syria, he would have intervened to prevent this without allowing the Syrians to intervene to put an end to the situation." end of this process. Abdullah gave an example of how President Chehab used this impartiality for the benefit of Lebanon, saying: Bkerke The relationship with Bkerki was very important to President Shehab, and he had a good relationship with Patriarch Meouchi, but he was against Bkerke's direct intervention in politics, says Abdullah, adding that "President Shehab was considered Bkerki able to ask what she wanted directly from the President of the Republic without declaring her position on the basis of From the idea that if the patriarch intervenes in politics today, the mufti will intervene tomorrow." Chehab’s nephew’s memory is rich with novels that printed the covenant, including according to Abdullah “Zuhd,” the president who “is not concerned with money, but only wants the state and Lebanon and refuses political inheritance.” Rarely did Chehab's relative admit the negative aspects that led Chehab's opponents to describe him as a dictator, authoritarian, and the owner of police rule. It is certain that listening to his novels opens horizons to a tumultuous phase of Lebanon's modern history, during which politics was practiced with more profound and vital standards than today, especially since the idea of the state had not yet approached the idea of impossibility. Prince Fouad Abdullah Shehab (of the descendants of the Shehab princes) was born on March 19, 1902 in Ghazis (Kesrouan) to his father, Prince Abdullah Shehab and his mother, Sheikha Badia Hobeish. There were conflicting news about his destination between Egypt, Turkey and America. After about two years, news of the father was cut off from his family (wife and three children, Fouad, Farid and Shakib) and his fate was not known. Did he drown in the sea while trying to emigrate to another country after his last headquarters was Marseilles, or was he killed or died? Thus, Shehab, an orphan father, was born. After the father's news broke, the family's condition worsened, so the mother decided to return to her father's home, Sheikh Talib Hobeish in Jounieh, where her two brothers, Wadih and Badie', and her two sisters, Isabel and Nabiha, lived in the same house. In the year 1914, the First World War broke out and the schools closed their doors, so Fouad Chehab went with his two brothers to a small school near the port of Jounieh, whose director and only teacher was the priest Louis El-Khazen. The family's poverty prompted Shehab to drop out of school and work directly (calling litigants and witnesses to appear before the judge) in Jounieh Court for two years, with the support of his uncle Wadih Hobeish. Army Fouad Chehab volunteered in the Syrian Cavalry Unit in the East of the French army in September 1919, and after a year he left the army, but he remained without work. Promotion and positions, where he became captain in December 1929. At the beginning of 1944, General Georges Catroux, commander of the Free French Forces, promoted him to the rank of colonel. After Lebanon gained its independence in 1943, negotiations began with the French authorities to transfer the Eastern Special Forces (which included Lebanese working in the French army) from the mandate authority to the authority of the Lebanese government, and that was on August 1, 1945. On July 26, 1946, the Lebanese government appointed the leader (military rank at the time) Fouad Chehab as commander of the Lebanese Army, and he remained in his position for 12 years until 1958, when he was elected President of the Republic. Thus, he was the first army commander, and the first army commander to become president of the Lebanese Republic. During the 12 years he spent in command, he worked on developing the army, rearming it and organizing it to enable it to protect the regime and the state. He was considered the builder of the Lebanese army. Presidency During Chehab's assumption of command of the Lebanese army, he was the focus of constant attention, despite his distance from the limelight. A new president, who became Camille Chamoun. In the crisis that erupted in 1958 against President Camille Chamoun and what accompanied it in crises in the region, especially Iraq and Egypt, and the American entry into Lebanon, the Egyptian-American consensus was made on him to be president of the Lebanese Republic and put an end to the state of deterioration that Lebanon began to experience. In a session held by the House of Representatives on July 31, 1958, Shehab was elected President of the Republic, but President Camille Chamoun stuck to his position until the end of his constitutional term on September 23, when the handover process took place. Shehab continued as president until 1964, rejecting the attempts that were made to renew his term despite the support of the majority of deputies for this option. his marriage In 1924, Fouad Chehab, who was a lieutenant, became acquainted with the French Rose René Poitiou (born in 1904), the daughter of a French officer killed in the First World War. His work in the French army in Syria and Lebanon, and this allowed her to get acquainted with Shehab, who culminated in the marriage on December 27, 1926 in the Church of the Carmelites in the town of Qobayat al-Akari, where his workplace and the place of residence of his wife’s family, but this marriage did not produce children. his attributes Shehab was characterized by his love of seclusion and distance from noise, and he preferred nature and calm, and perhaps his most prominent characteristic is integrity and lack of money, as he spent 12 years as an army commander and 6 years as president of the republic and until his death he remained a main focus in politics, but he died poor as he was born. He did not leave a financial or real estate fortune, like most of our politicians. When his wife died in 1992, her wealth consisted of a small house that needed repairs and restoration, an old car and a bank account of 1.5 million pounds (less than a thousand dollars at the time). the end After leaving the presidency, he chose to stay away from political life and public life as much as possible, but he continued as a pivot in political life visited by close officers and politicians. He died on Wednesday afternoon, April 25, 1973, as a result of a severe heart attack, and his wife died on February 18, 1992, about 19 years since Chehab's death as a result of weakness and disability. This is how Chehab's personal page was turned, but the Lebanese still remember the institutions that were established during the Chehab era, although some criticize him for the wide powers he granted to the officers of the second office, which was one of the flaws that his reign ha saw a completely opposite image in him, saying that he was a ruthless dictator, with the slogan "neither conqueror nor defeated." He presented himself as a consensual candidate to succeed President Camille Chamoun, and he was the first commander of the Lebanese army who held the position of Minister of Defense from October 18, 1956 to March 1957. He was the late Fouad Abdullah Shehab, who was elected on this day, July 31, 1958, as President of the Lebanese Republic. Shehab ruled Lebanon from September 23, 1958 to September 22, 1964, and in 1923 he graduated with the rank of lieutenant from the Military School in Homs, and on August 1, 1945, he became the first commander of the Lebanese Army. After the events of 1958, he was elected to succeed President Camille Chamoun, and made several administrative reforms He sought to improve Lebanon's relationship with other Arab countries, and in 1962 his regime was subjected to a failed coup attempt orchestrated by the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. He was succeeded in 1964 by Charles Helou. Major General Fouad Shehab was an officer in the Al-Sharq Division, which was struggling to liberate Lebanon and achieve its independence. The ranks of the French army for military service for one year - before the declaration of the mandate over Lebanon in the year 1920 Shehab refused to let the army get involved in this Political confrontation and intervention for or against any of the conflicting parties When Beshara Al-Khoury was forced to resign, Major General Shehab was appointed as the head of a transitional government whose mission was to organize and secure the election of a president and was keen to keep the army away from politics. In 1958, a sharp political split occurred among the Lebanese, which was known as the crisis of 58, and the need for a consensual and strong president arose to save the country and restore calm and peace. With the end of his presidential term in 1964, many considered that President Chehab's survival at the head of the country was the best option for the continuation of stability and the completion of more reforms. However, Chehab categorically refused to amend the constitution to allow him to run for a second term. Fouad Chehab died at his home in Jounieh on April 25, 1973, of a heart attack, at the age of seventy-one. Beirut (/beɪˈruːt/ bay-ROOT;[4] Arabic: بيروت, romanized: About this soundBayrūt) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As of 2014, Greater Beirut has a population of 2.2 million,[5] which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been inhabited for more than 5,000 years, and was one of Phoenicia's most prominent city states, making it one of the oldest cities in the world. The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the Amarna letters from the New Kingdom of Egypt, which date to the 15th century BC. Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country and region, and rated a Beta + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[6] Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War, and its cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction.[7][8][9] Contents 1 Names 2 Prehistory 2.1 Prehistory 3 History 3.1 Phoenician period 3.2 Hellenistic period 3.3 Roman period 3.4 Middle Ages 3.5 Ottoman rule 3.5.1 Vilayet of Beirut 3.6 Modern era 3.6.1 Capital of Lebanon 4 Geography 4.1 Climate 4.2 Environmental issues 4.3 Quarters and sectors 5 Demographics 5.1 Religion 6 Beirut Central District 7 Economy 7.1 Banking and finance 7.2 Tourism 8 Government 8.1 International organisations 9 Education 10 Transportation 11 Culture 11.1 Museums 11.2 Tourism 11.3 Media 11.4 Sports 11.5 Art and fashion 12 Gallery 13 Twin towns and sister cities 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Bibliography 17 External links Names The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name Bayrūt (بيروت). The same name's transcription into French is Beyrouth, which was sometimes used during Lebanon's French occupation. The Arabic name derives from Phoenician be'rūt (𐤁𐤀𐤓𐤕 b'rt). This was a modification of the Canaanite and Phoenician word be'rūt, meaning "the wells", in reference to the site's accessible water table.[10][11] The name is first attested in the 14th century BC, when it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform[11] tablets of the Amarna letters,[12] letters sent by King Ammunira of Biruta[13] to Amenhotep III or Amenhotep IV of Egypt.[14] Biruta was also mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos.[15] The Greeks hellenised the name as Bērytós (Ancient Greek: Βηρυτός), which the Romans latinised as Berytus.[a] When it attained the status of a Roman colony, it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended to Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus to include its imperial sponsors. At the time of the crusades, the city was known in French as Barut or Baruth. Prehistory Canaanean Blade. Suggested to be part of a javelin. Fresh grey flint, both sides showing pressure flaking. Somewhat narrower at the base, suggesting a haft. Polished at the extreme point. Found on land of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. Prehistory Beirut was settled more than 5,000 years ago[17] and the area had been inhabited for far longer. Several prehistoric archaeological sites have been discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools of sequential periods dating from the Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Beirut I (Minet el-Hosn) was listed as "the town of Beirut" (French: Beyrouth ville) by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orient and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut.[18][19] The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900.[20] The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.[21] Beirut II (Umm el-Khatib) was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres (328 feet) above sea level. The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948.[21] Beirut III (Furn esh-Shebbak), listed as Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticised by Lorraine Copeland.[21] P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanisation of the area.[22] Beirut IV (Furn esh-Shebbak, river banks) was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[20] Raoul Describes[23] and Auguste Bergy.[22] Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. Many Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Beirut V (Nahr Beirut, Beirut River) was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits.[24] The area has now been built on.[25] Beirut VI (Patriarchate) was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the early or middle Neolithic periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library.[21] Beirut VII, the Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer.[21] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.[26] History See also: Timeline of Beirut The earliest settlement of Beirut was on an island in the Beirut River, but the channel that separated it from the banks silted up and the island ceased to be. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman remains.[27] Phoenician period Main article: Phoenician port of Beirut The Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port or harbour was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city.[28] Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered around 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) to the west in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorisation was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching in Marburg, Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may never be known, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press.[29][30][31] Hellenistic period In 140 BC, the Phoenician city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his conflict with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Hellenistic Seleucid monarchy. Laodicea in Phoenicia was built upon the same site on a more conventional Hellenistic plan. Present-day Beirut overlies this ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the civil war 1991. The salvage excavations after 1993 have yielded new insights into the layout and history of this period of Beirut's history. Public architecture included several areas and buildings.[32] Mid-1st-century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune;[33] on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was later taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. After a state of civil war and decline the Seleucid Empire faced, King Tigranes the Great of the Kingdom of Armenia conquered Beirut and placed it under effective Armenian control. However, after the Battle of Tigranocerta, Armenia forever lost their holdings in Syria and Beirut was conquered by Roman general Pompey. Roman period Roman Columns of Basilica near the Forum of Berytus Main article: Berytus Laodicea was conquered by Pompey in 64 BC and the name Berytus was restored to it. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[34][35][36] From the 1st century BC, the Bekaa Valley served as a source of grain for the Roman provinces of the Levant and even for Rome itself. Under Claudius, Berytus expanded to reach the Bekaa Valley and include Heliopolis (Baalbek). The city was settled by Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the region. As a result of this settlement, the city quickly became Romanized, and the city became the only mainly Latin-speaking area in the Syria-Phoenicia province.[37] In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colony, one of four in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Italian rights (ius Italicum) exempting its citizens from imperial taxation. Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.[37] Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus: the 5th Macedonian and the 3rd Gallic Legions.[38] Berytus's law school was widely known;[39] two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, were natives of Phoenicia and taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in AD 533 Justinian recognised the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. In 551, a major earthquake struck Berytus,[11][34][40] causing widespread damage. The earthquake reduced cities along the coast to ruins and killed many, 30,000 in Berytus alone by some measurements.[41] As a result, the students of the law school were transferred to Sidon.[42] Salvage excavations since 1993 have yielded new insights in the layout and history of Roman Berytus. Public architecture included several bath complexes, Colonnaded Streets, a circus and theatre;[32] residential areas were excavated in the Garden of Forgiveness, Martyrs' Square and the Beirut Souks.[43] View of Beirut with snow-capped Mount Sannine in the background – 19th century Middle Ages Beirut was conquered by the Muslims in 635.[35][44] Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin el Fil in Beirut in 759. From this principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon.[citation needed] As a trading centre of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre (in modern-day Israel) during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291, the town and Lordship of Beirut was part of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city was taken by Saladin in 1187 and recaptured in 1197 by Henry I of Brabant as part of the German Crusade of 1197. John of Ibelin, known as the Old Lord of Beirut, was granted the lordship of the city in 1204. He rebuilt the city after its destruction by the Ayyubids and also built the House of Ibelin palace in Beirut.[44] Beirut Castle and waterfront, 1868 Ottoman rule Pine Forest of Beirut, 1914 Under the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520), the Ottomans conquered Syria including present-day Lebanon. Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[45] One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century, but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763.[46] With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[47] Beirut began its revival. View of Beirut's Grand Serail- circa 1930 By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial centre. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as the Sursock family, to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus.[48] This in turn altered the religious composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future sectarian and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realisation amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[49] After petitions by the local bourgeois, the governor of Syria Vilayet Mehmed Rashid Pasha authorized the establishment of the Beirut Municipal Council,[50] the first municipality established in the Arab provinces of the Empire.[51] The council was elected by an assembly of city notables and played an instrumental role governing the city through the following decades.[50] Vilayet of Beirut In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria,[52] including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[53] By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned educational institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners.[46] At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city. An aerial panoramic view of Beirut in the last third of the 19th century In his 2003 book entitled Beirut and its Seven Families, Dr. Yussef Bin Ahmad Bin Ali Al Husseini says: The seven families of Beirut are the families who bonded among each other and made the famous historical agreement with the governor of the Syrian Coast in 1351 to protect and defend the city of Beirut and its shores, and chase the invaders and stop their progress towards it. Modern era Capital of Lebanon Saint Nicholas staircase in Ashrafieh Ras Beirut and the Mediterranean Sea Nightlife scene in Badaro After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven,[54][55] especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom. This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country,[56][57] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[58] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly shelled the eastern quarter of the city,[59] but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War. Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers.[60][61][62] Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, whose urban agglomeration was mainly constituted during war time through an anarchic urban development[63] stretching along the littoral corridor and its nearby heights. By the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual centre in the Middle East and as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has hosted both the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup, and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant nine times: 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002, and 2016. Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut.[64][65] A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut.[66][67] The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[68] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[69] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.[70] During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantly Shiite southern suburbs of Beirut. On 12 July 2006, the "Operation Truthful Promise" carried out by Hezbollah ended with 8 Israeli deaths and 6 injuries. In response, the IDF targeted Hezbollah's main media outlets. There were then artillery raids against targets in southern Lebanon, and the Israeli cabinet held Beirut responsible for the attacks. Then on 13 July 2006 Israel began implementing a naval and air blockade over Lebanon; during this blockade Israel bombed the runways at Beirut International Airport and the major Beirut-Damascus highway in Eastern Lebanon.[71] In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army.[72] After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps in Martyrs' Square.[73] On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighbourhood of Achrafiyeh, including Brigadier General Wissam al-Hassan, chief of the Intelligence Bureau of the Internal Security Forces. In addition, 78 others were wounded in the bombing.[74] It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008.[75] On 27 December 2013, a car bomb exploded in the Central District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S. Mohamad Chatah, and wounding 71 others.[76] In the 12 November 2015 Beirut bombings, two suicide bombers detonated explosives outside a mosque and inside a bakery, killing 43 people and injuring 200. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant immediately claimed responsibility for the attacks.[77][78] On 4 August 2020, a massive explosion in the Port of Beirut resulted in the death of at least 203 people (with an additional three missing)[79] and the wounding of more than 6,500. Foreigners from at least 22 countries were among the casualties. Furthermore, at least 108 Bangladeshis were injured in the blasts, making them the most affected foreign community. The cause of the blast is believed to be from government-confiscated and stored ammonium nitrate.[80] As many as 300,000 people have been left homeless by the explosion.[81] Protesters in Lebanon called on the government on 8 August 2020 for the end of the alleged negligence that resulted in the 4 August explosion.[82] On 10 August 2020, as a result of the protests, Prime Minister Hassan Diab announced his resignation.[83] Weeks later, a huge fire erupted in an oil and tyre warehouse in the port's duty-free zone, on 10 September 2020.[84] Geography Pigeon Rock (Raouché) Beirut seen from SPOT satellite Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea.[85] It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[85] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another. Climate Beirut has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) characterised by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to be moderated by the sea. Autumn and spring are warm, but short. Winter is mild and rainy. Summer is prolonged, hot and muggy. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea. The average annual rainfall is 825 millimetres (32.5 in), with the large majority of it falling from October to April. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over many days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall occurs due to the region's high altitudes. Hail (which can often be heavy) occurs a few times per year, mostly during winter. Climate data for Beirut International Airport Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 27.9 (82.2) 30.5 (86.9) 36.6 (97.9) 39.3 (102.7) 39.0 (102.2) 40.0 (104.0) 40.4 (104.7) 39.5 (103.1) 37.5 (99.5) 37.0 (98.6) 33.1 (91.6) 30.0 (86.0) 40.4 (104.7) Average high °C (°F) 17.4 (63.3) 17.5 (63.5) 19.6 (67.3) 22.6 (72.7) 25.4 (77.7) 27.9 (82.2) 30.0 (86.0) 30.7 (87.3) 29.8 (85.6) 27.5 (81.5) 23.2 (73.8) 19.4 (66.9) 24.3 (75.7) Daily mean °C (°F) 14.0 (57.2) 14.0 (57.2) 16.0 (60.8) 18.7 (65.7) 21.7 (71.1) 24.9 (76.8) 27.1 (80.8) 27.8 (82.0) 26.8 (80.2) 24.1 (75.4) 19.5 (67.1) 15.8 (60.4) 20.9 (69.6) Average low °C (°F) 11.2 (52.2) 11.0 (51.8) 12.6 (54.7) 15.2 (59.4) 18.2 (64.8) 21.6 (70.9) 24.0 (75.2) 24.8 (76.6) 23.7 (74.7) 21.0 (69.8) 16.3 (61.3) 12.9 (55.2) 17.7 (63.9) Record low °C (°F) 0.8 (33.4) 3.0 (37.4) 0.2 (32.4) 7.6 (45.7) 10.0 (50.0) 15.0 (59.0) 18.0 (64.4) 19.0 (66.2) 17.0 (62.6) 11.1 (52.0) 7.0 (44.6) 4.6 (40.3) 0.2 (32.4) Average precipitation mm (inches) 154 (6.1) 127 (5.0) 84 (3.3) 31 (1.2) 11 (0.4) 1 (0.0) 0.3 (0.01) 0 (0) 5 (0.2) 60 (2.4) 115 (4.5) 141 (5.6) 730 (28.7) Average rainy days 12 10 8 5 2 2 0.04 0.1 1 4 7 11 62 Average relative humidity (%) 64 64 64 66 70 71 72 71 65 62 60 63 66 Mean monthly sunshine hours 131 143 191 243 310 348 360 334 288 245 200 147 2,940 Source 1: Pogodaiklimat.ru[86] Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun 1931–1960)[87] Beirut mean sea temperature[88] Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) 21.3 °C (70.3 °F) 24.9 °C (76.8 °F) 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) 28.1 °C (82.6 °F) 26.0 °C (78.8 °F) 22.6 °C (72.7 °F) 20.1 °C (68.2 °F) Environmental issues Main article: Marine environmental issues in Lebanon Lebanon, especially Beirut and its suburbs, suffered a massive garbage crisis, mainly from July 2015 up to March 2016. The issue began when authorities shut down the main landfill site originally used for Beirut's garbage south-east of the city and failed to provide any alternative solutions for months. As a result, garbage mounted in the streets in Greater Beirut and caused protests to erupt, which sometimes invoked police action. This problem was commonly blamed on the country's political situation. This garbage crisis birthed a movement called "You Stink" which was directed at the country's politicians. In March 2016, the government finally came up with a so-called temporary solution to establish two new landfills East and South of the city to store the garbage, while several municipalities across the country, in an unprecedented move, began recycling and managing waste more efficiently, building waste-management facilities and relying on themselves rather than the central government. Moreover, Beirut has a lack of green areas with just two main public gardens (sanayeh and horch Beirut). In fact, concrete roofs cover 80% of the capital area.[89] Quarters and sectors Main article: List of places in Beirut Map of the 12 quarters of Beirut Beirut is divided into 12 quarters (quartiers):[90] Achrafieh Dar Mreisse Bachoura Mazraa (with the neighbourhood Badaro) Medawar (with the neighbourhood Mar Mikhaël) Minet El Hosn Moussaitbeh (with Ramlet al-Baida) Port Ras Beirut Remeil Saifi Zuqaq al-Blat These quarters are divided into 59 sectors (secteurs).[91] Badaro is an edgy, bohemian style neighbourhood[citation needed], within the green district of Beirut (secteur du parc) which also include the Beirut Hippodrome and the Beirut Pine Forest and the French ambassador's Pine Residence. It is one of Beirut's favourite hip nightlife destination.[citation needed] Two of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Bourj el-Barajneh and Shatila. There is also one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias.[92] Southern suburban districts include Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municipality), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital.[92] Of the 15 unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut[93] and was the scene of a massacre during the civil war.[citation needed] People in Lebanon often use different names for the same geographic locations, and few people rely on official, government-provided street numbers. Instead, historic and commercial landmarks are more commonly used.[citation needed] Demographics No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[94] but estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940[95] through 1,303,129[96] to as high as 2,200,000 as part of Greater Beirut.[3][97] Religion See also: Religion in Lebanon, Shia Islam in Lebanon, Sunni Islam in Lebanon, Christianity in Lebanon, Secularism in Lebanon, and Jews in Lebanon Religion in Beirut (2018 Elections Results) Islam (60%) Christianity (37.4%) Druze (1.1%) Judaism (0.9%) Other (0.6%) Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[98] The city boasts significant Muslim and Christian communities. In Beirut there are 18 recognised religious groups.[99] At the end of the civil war the Copts became another recognised confession, bringing the total number to eighteen. The original seventeen included three Muslim sects: Shi'a, Sunni, and 'Alawi; one Druze sect; Twelve Christian sects: Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholics, Protestant Evangelicals, and other Christian denominations non-native to Lebanon like Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Assyrians (Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic), Copts; and Jews (very few remain in Lebanon today, but children of Lebanese Jewish parents may register as citizens at Lebanese Embassies.[100]) Briefly, Christians are 35% of Beirut, Muslims 63%, 1% Druze, 1% others. Church of Saint George Maronite and Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque coexist side by side in Downtown Beirut Cathedral of St Elias and St Gregory the Illuminator in Downtown Beirut Cathedral of St. George's Greek Orthodox in Downtown Beirut Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Downtown Beirut Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognised by Lebanese civil authorities. Before the civil war the neighbourhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict.[101] East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni Muslim majority with small minorities of Shia, Christians and Druze. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian. The city is also home to a small number of Latin Rite Roman Catholics in the form of an apostolic vicariate with Archbishop Paul Dahdah, OCD, as the apostolic vicar. Beirut Central District Main article: Beirut Central District The Beirut Central District (BCD) or Centre Ville is the name given to Beirut's historical and geographical core by "Solidere", the "vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country."[102] It is an area thousands of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments.[103] Due to the devastation incurred on the city centre from the Lebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since, Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organisations, reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city centre.[104] Roman baths park in Downtown Beirut. Assessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centres.[105] The district's total area is 4,690,000 square metres (50,482,740 square feet), the majority of which is dedicated to residential space (1,924,000 square metres or 20,709,764 square feet).[106] The Beirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totalling to an area of 96 acres (39 ha) of open spaces. The central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in the Beirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters. Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are the Central District's old medieval market, recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterised the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades.[107] Solidere, the company responsible for the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organises music and entertainment events all throughout the year like the Beirut Marathon, Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival. However, the means of urban development in this particular area of the city was subject to much criticism and controversy. Rafic Hariri, who would later become prime minister, was the majority stakeholder of the company, which raises concerns of conflict of interest in the context of a public-private partnership.[108] Many of the expropriations that have made the project possible have been made at undervalued land rates, and partly paid in company share. Strict urbanisation laws were put in order to oblige people to sell and not renovate themselves.[109] Today, Solidere acts as a de facto municipality, thus this quarter of the city is effectively privatised. It is for example forbidden to ride bikes on Zeituna Bay, a marina where many restaurants are located, and these laws are enforced by private security guards not national or municipal police. The project was also criticised for destroying some of the city's architectural and cultural heritage. "Among the hundreds of destroyed buildings were "the last Ottoman and medieval remains in Beirut" wrote American University of Beirut professor Nabil Beyhum in the Journal The Beirut Review in 1992. Much of the damage had been done through unapproved demolitions in the 1980s and early 1990s, bringing down "some of the capital's most significant buildings and structures," wrote UCLA professor Saree Makdisi in the journal, Critical Inquiry, in 1997.".[110] Moreover, many of the traditional privately owned shops in the Beirut Downtown were replaced by luxury outlets and high-end restaurants that only few people could afford. And most of public spaces promised by Solidere since the start of the reconstruction, such as "The Garden of Forgiveness", a central park, and an archaeological museum, remain unfinished until today,[when?] putting into question the actual benefit of the project to the population.[110] Finally, the actual success of the project has recently[when?] been in doubt, given that large quarters of the BCD are today empty, due to strong military presence, the Nejmeh Square where the parliament is located is most frequently completely deserted, and the business located there have mostly moved.[111] Economy Cafés in downtown Beirut Beirut's economy is service-oriented with the main growth sectors being banking and tourism. In an area dominated by authoritarian or militarist regimes, the Lebanese capital was generally regarded as a haven of libertarianism, though a precarious one.[citation needed] With its seaport and airport—coupled with Lebanon's free economic and foreign exchange system, solid gold-backed currency, banking-secrecy law, and favourable interest rates—Beirut became an established banking centre for Arab wealth, much of which was invested in construction, commercial enterprise, and industry (mostly the manufacture of textiles and shoes, food processing, and printing).[112] The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries. During that period, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[113] Zaitunay Bay Beirut is the focal point of the Economy of Lebanon. The capital hosts the headquarters of Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, the Beirut Stock Exchange, the head office of Lebanon's flag-carrier Middle East Airlines, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, the Union of Arab Banks, and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges.[114] Banking and finance System-search.svg The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is about Lebanese Liquidity Crisis.. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ras Beirut 1983 The Banking System is the backbone of the local economy with a balance sheet of $152 billion at the end of 2012, nearing 3.5 times the GDP estimated at $43 billion by the IMF.[115] Bank deposits also increased in 2012 by 8% to 125 billion dollars, 82 percent of the sector's assets. "Banks are still attracting deposits because the interest rates offered are higher than the ones in Europe and the United States", says Marwan Mikhael, head of research at BLOM Bank.[116] Beirut's foreign reserves were still close to an all-time high when they reached $32.5 billion in 2011 and analysts say that the Central Bank can cover nearly 80 percent of the Lebanese currency in the market. This means that the Central Bank can easily cope with any unforeseen crisis in the future thanks to the massive foreign currency reserves. [117] The Lebanese banking system is endowed with several characteristics that promote the role of Beirut as a regional financial centre, in terms of ensuring protection for foreign capital and earnings. The Lebanese currency is fully convertible and can be exchanged freely with any other currency. Moreover, no restrictions are put on the free flow of capital and earnings into and out of the Lebanese economy. The passing of the banking secrecy law on 3 September 1956, subjected all banks established in Lebanon as well as foreign banks' branches to the "secret of the profession". Both article 16 of law No. 282 dated 30 December 1993 and article 12 of decree No. 5451 dated 26 August 1994, offer exemptions from income tax on all interest and revenues earned on all types of accounts opened in Lebanese banks. On the first of April 1975, decree No. 29 established a free banking zone by granting the Lebanese government the right to exempt non-residents' deposits and liabilities in foreign currency from: the income tax on interest earned, the required reserves imposed by the Banque Du Liban by virtue of article 76 of the Code of Money and Credit, the premium of deposit guarantee imposed on bank deposits to the profit of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution.[118] Tourism Raouché The tourism industry in Beirut has been historically important to the local economy and remains to this day to be a major source of revenue for the city, and Lebanon in general. Before the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut was widely regarded as the "Paris of the Middle East,"[119] often cited as a financial and business hub where visitors could experience the Levantine Mediterranean culture. Beirut's diverse atmosphere and ancient history make it an important destination which is slowly rebuilding itself after continued turmoil. However, in recent times, certain countries, such as the United States, have frequently placed Lebanon, and Beirut in particular, on their travel warnings lists due to the many car bombings and orchestrated acts of political violence.[120][121][122] Pigeon Rocks Sunset According to the 2012 tourist statistics, 34% of the tourists in Beirut came from states within the Arab League, 33% came from European countries (mainly France, Germany, and Britain), and 16% from the Americas (about half of which are from the United States).[123] The largely pedestrianised Beirut Central District is the core of the Beirut tourism scene. The district is a cluster of stone-façade buildings lining arcaded streets and radial alleyways. The architecture of the area is a mix of French Architecture and Venetian Gothic architecture mixed with Arabesque and Ottoman Architecture. The district contains numerous old mosques and crusader churches, as well as uncovered remnants and ruins of the Roman era. The District contains dozens of restaurants, cafes and pubs, as well as a wide range of shopping stores mainly in Beirut Souks. High-rise hotels and towers line the district's New Waterfront, marina and seaside promenade. Another popular tourist destination in Beirut is the Corniche Beirut, a 4.8 km (3 mi) pedestrian promenade that encircles the capital's seafront from the Saint George Bay in the north all the way to Avenue de Paris and Avenue General de Gaulle south of the city. The corniche reaches its maximum height above sea level at Raouché, a high-rise residential neighbourhood rising over a giant white limestone cliff and facing the recognisable off-shore Raouché Rocks. Badaro is one of Beirut's most appealing neighbourhoods, a lovely place to stroll during daytime and a destination for going out in the evening. Badaro is within Beirut's green district with a 75-acre (30-hectare) public park (The Beirut Pine forest) and a 50-acre (20-hectare) hippodrome. It is a neighbourhood on a very human scale with small groceries around every corner. The neighbourhood residents, a mix of old impoverished Christian bourgeoisie, bohemian style people in their 30s and well-established urban professionals, are loyal to local bakery and pastry shops. Because of the blossoming café and bar scene it has become lately a hip destination for Beirut's young and restless but old Beirutis remember that Badaro was already Beirut's version of the Village in the swinging sixties.[citation needed] Groceries and eateries can be found on almost every street of the area.[citation needed] There are dozens of restaurants, pubs and footpath cafés of virtually every style.[citation needed] Badaro "Village" thrives on local residents, day-trippers and hipsters from all over Beirut, office employees and many expatriates.[citation needed] Hamra Street is a long cobblestone street connecting the Beirut Central District with the coastal Raouche area. The street is a large concentration of shopping stores, boutiques, restaurants, banks, street vendors, footpath cafes, newspaper kiosks, and a booming nightlife spurred by students from the neighbouring American University of Beirut. The AUB campus is another popular visitor destination, composed of a cluster of 19th century red-roofed buildings dispersed on a wooded hillside overlooking the Mediterranean. Gemmayzeh is Beirut's artistic bohemian quarter, full of narrow streets and historic buildings from the French era. It is located East of the Beirut Central District, bordering the Saifi Village. The neighborhood is well known for its trendy bars and pubs, cafes, restaurants and lounges; most are directly located on Rue Gouraud, the main thoroughfare that cuts through the middle of the district. Travel + Leisure magazine called Gemmayzeh "SoHo by the Sea," due to its colorful and chic cafés amid 1950s apartment buildings and hole-in-the-wall shops.[124] However, Gemmayzeh received the most damage by the Beirut explosion in 2020.[125] Downtown Beirut Mosque Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[126] In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked the 9th best city in the world.[127] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[128] The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009.[129] 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totalling $6.5 billion.[130] Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai.[131] Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[132] Like other forms of tourism, medical tourism in Lebanon is on the rise recently. Although visitors from neighbouring Arab nations make up the bulk of medical tourism patients here due to its proximity, Beirut is strongly trying to woo more Southern Europeans, Asians and North Americans to its land. Its Agency for Investment Development in Lebanon reports that growth in the medical tourism industry is growing by up to 30% a year since 2009. The country's tourism ministry is working closely with the medical sector and top-class hotels to create an organised, quality medical destination.[133] Major hotel and spa chains work with local clinics, travel agencies and the tourism ministry to create comprehensive healthcare and recuperation packages for foreign visitors. The government is highly involved in this industry and strives to make the process as easy as possible.[134] Cosmetic surgery is a major component of medical tourism in Lebanon. Most of the foreign patients come for routine operations like plastic surgery, dental or eye surgery, and Beirut's hospitals are also capable of performing specialised procedures such as internal bypass surgery and other technical treatments. Its top clinics and hospitals like Sahel General are equipped to handle the full range of surgical procedures. Beirut-based Clemenceau Medical Center (CMC), affiliated with Johns Hopkins International, was ranked one of the world's top ten best hospitals for medical tourism in 2012.[135] Government Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[136] The Lebanese Parliament,[137] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[138] Beirut Governorate is one of eight mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, or governorate). Name Took office Left office 1 Kamel Hamieh 1936 1941 2 Nicholas Rizk 1946 1952 3 George Assi 1952 1956 4 Bachour Haddad 1956 1958 5 Philip Boulos 1959 1960 6 Emile Yanni 1960 1967 7 Shafic Bou Haydar 1967 1977 8 Mitri El Nammar 1977 1987 9 George Smaha 1987 1991 10 Nayef El Malouf 1992 1995 11 Nicholas Saba 1995 1999 12 Jacob Sarraf 1999 2005 13 Nassif Kaloush 2005 2008 14 Rachid Ammoury Maalouf 2008 2015 15 Jamal Itani 2016 Present Facade of the Beirut City Hall The Grand Serail Lebanese Parliament United Nations Lebanon headquarters International organisations The city is home to numerous international organisations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut,[139][140] The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO),[141] the Union of Arab Banks[142] and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges[143] are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO)[144] and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)[145] both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world. Education Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by universities, colleges and technical and vocational institutes. The American University of Beirut and Université Saint-Joseph (USJ), are the oldest respectively English medium and French medium universities in the country. The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut.[146] Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies and considered lately one of the top universities in the Middle East.[147][148][149][150][151] Beirut is also home to the American University of Science and Technology (AUST), University of Balamand, École Supérieure des Affaires (ESA), Beirut Arab University (BAU), Haigazian University (HU), Lebanese International University (LIU), as well as the Notre Dame University – Louaize (NDU), Université La Sagesse (ULS). Notre Dame University (NDU)'s degrees are becoming more and more valuable with time. NDU received its accreditation from NIASC in 2015. The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.[146] Among the private secondary schools in Beirut are Lycee Abdel Kader, Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, American Community School, International College, Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College,[152] Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, Collège Protestant Français, Armenian Evangelical Central High School, German School of Beirut, and the Armenian Hamazkayin Arslanian College. AUB established in 1866 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Saint Joseph University, or Université Saint-Joseph, founded by the Jesuits in 1875 American University of Science and Technology, established in Beirut in 1989 Haigazian University was founded in 1955 by the Armenian Evangelical community Global University in Beirut École supérieure des affaires, founded in 1996 as a joint co-operation between the Paris Chamber of Commerce (Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris) and the Bank of Lebanon Transportation Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[153] Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.[154] The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congestion-choked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars.[citation needed] Beirut has also private buses that are provided by the Lebanese Commuting Company. In 2017, Beirut introduced a bike sharing service in certain areas of the city. Culture The Garden Show & Spring Festival at the Beirut Hippodrome The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilisations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading centre of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire. Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres,[155][156] which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.[157][158] In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO.[159] Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[160] Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[161] and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as "The Alleyway" in Hamra Street. Museums The National Museum of Beirut Sursock Museum The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[162] The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artefacts from Lebanon and neighbouring countries.[163] Sursock Museum was built by the illustrious Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa for Nicolas Sursock, and then donated to the Lebanese state upon his death. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings, numerous works of Islamic art and classic Italian paintings, while temporary exhibitions are also shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques.[164][165] Planet Discovery is a children's science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[166] The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.[167] In October 2013, Mim Museum, a private mineral museum, opened its doors to the public. It has on display some 2000 minerals from more than 70 countries. Mim museum's collection is considered to be one of the world's paramount private collection for the variety and quality of its minerals.[168][169] A didactic circuit, accompanied by screens showing films and scientific applications of mineralogy, will reveal a world of unsuspected marvels—priceless both from an aesthetic and scientific point of view. Mimodactylus libanensis "mimo", the fossil of a pterodactyl is featured in a special wing. This one-of-a-kind complete specimen in the Middle-East was found in Lebanon. It is promoted by means of state-of-the-art modern techniques: a hologram, an auto-stereoscopic movie, a full-scale reconstitution and a game "fly with mimo" – an entertainment that delights children and adults. Moreover, Mim hosts a thematic exhibition of 200 marine fossils. "Fish’n’Stone" was organised with the collaboration of Mémoire du Temps. Known throughout the world, those fossils were quarried in the Lebanese mountains. The history of the fossil formation is shown through an animation that submerses you in the marine life – a time capsule that takes you in a journey to some 100 million of years ago. Tourism Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009,[129] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year.[170] According to a 2010 study by the American global consulting firm Mercer comparing high-end items such as upscale residential areas and entertainment venues, Beirut was ranked as the 4th most expensive city in the Middle East and 15th among the Upper Middle Income Countries included in the survey.[171] Beirut came in first place regionally and 10th place internationally in a 2010 study by "EuroCost International" about the rental markets for high quality housing.[172][173] The 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totalling $6.5 billion.[130] Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East.[131] In 2013, Condé Nast Traveller ranked Beirut in the top 20 best cities in the world.[174] On 7 December 2014, Beirut was selected to be among the New 7 Wonders of Cities, along with Doha, Durban, La Paz, Havana, Kuala Lumpur and Vigan.[175] The campaign was held by New 7 Wonders.[176] In 2016, Yahoo listed Beirut as the best international city for food.[177] Travel and Leisure ranked Beirut in the top 15 World's best cities.[178] It was voted the must-visit city for the year 2019 by World Tourists.[citation needed] Media Beirut is a main centre for the television, radio stations, newspaper, and book publishing industries. Television stations based in Beirut include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, Tele Lumiere (Catholic TV), Future TV, New TV, NBN, ANB and Saudi TV 1 on 33 UHF and MBC 1, MBC 4, MBC Action, Fox, Al Jazeera, Rotana, OSN First, OSN News, Al Yawm and Arabic Series Channel on 45 UHF. Radio Stations include Mix FM Lebanon, Virgin Radio Lebanon, Radio One Lebanon, Sawt el Ghad, RLL, Jaras Scoop, NRJ Lebanon... Newspapers include An-Nahar, Al Joumhouria, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al-Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar, Al Sharq. Newspapers and magazines published in French include L'Orient Le Jour (since 1970), La Revue Du Liban, Al Balad-French Version, Al Intiqad, Magazine L'Hebdo and La Commerce Du Levant. English newspapers published in Beirut are The Daily Star, Executive Magazine (weekly), Beirut Online, Beirut Times (weekly) and Monday Morning. Sports The Lebanese capital hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1959, FIBA Asia Champions Cup in 1999, 2000, 2012, the AFC Asian Cup in 2000, and the FIBA Asia Cup in 2010. Beirut was the host city for the 6th Annual Games of the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Beirut also hosted the Pan Arab Games in 1957, 1997, and did so again in 2015. In 2017, Beirut also hosted the 2017 FIBA Asia Cup. Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup.[179][180] There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium. Basketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently, 4 Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Homenetmen Beirut and Beirut. Other sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut. Lebanon men's national ice hockey team plays out of Montreal, in Canada. Art and fashion Beirut Souks shopping mall There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. The inauguration of the Beirut Art Center, a non-profit association, space and platform dedicated to contemporary art in Lebanon,[181] in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, book store, café and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs. A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[182] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab, Yara Farhat, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.[182] Beirut is also the home for a dynamic street art scene that has developed after the Lebanese Civil War, one of the most notable street artists is Yazan Halwani who is known to produce the largest murals on the walls of Beirut in areas such as Gemmayzeh, Hamra, Verdun and Achrafieh.[183] Beirut is also international artists' concert tour stop city. Artists like Shakira, Mariah Carey, Enrique Iglesias, Andrea Bocelli, Pitbull, Engelbert Humperdinck, Scorpions, and many more have included Beirut on their concert tours
- Condition: Used
- Country/Region of Manufacture: Lebanon
- Type: Photograph
- Subject: Presidents
- Original/Licensed Reprint: Original
- Year of Production: 1958
PicClick Insights - Beirut Lebanon Photo Fuad Chehab Parliament President 1958 Original Vintage 7X9 PicClick Exclusive
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