1935 Football President Gerald Ford East West Program Vintage Shriners

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176270374206 1935 FOOTBALL PRESIDENT GERALD FORD EAST WEST PROGRAM VINTAGE SHRINERS. An rare EAST WEST PROGRAM BENEFIT SHRINERS HOSPITAL FOR CRIPPLED CHILDREN IN POOR CONDITION C1935 of the future President Gerald ford from his senior year at The University of Michigan. 
 
Just two weeks into its 1934 season, the University of Michigan football team faced mounting adversity. The Wolverines had been shut out by teams from the University of Chicago and Michigan State, and a home game against Georgia Tech loomed. But off the field, athletic director Fielding Yost had a decision to make. The Yellow Jackets still observed the Jim Crow laws of the South, frowning upon the participation of black athletes within their program. They frowned upon lining up against them, too. Georgia Tech publicly refused to meet the Wolverines at Michigan Stadium if Yost and head coach Harry Kipke sent out Willis Ward, the team’s star end. But Ward was no ordinary end. In his track career, he bested Ohio State’s Jesse Owens in the 100-yard dash and was a three-year starter for the football team. Ward also was black. Similar incidents had occurred across the Midwest in games pitting teams from opposite sides of the Mason-Dixon line. But the controversy gathered steam in Ann Arbor as local protesters and news outlets aired opinions on the topic. The story, slated to be part of a film documentary, is a demonstration of racial equality — one that would  go on to shape policy at U-M and across the United States — when Ward’s  close friend and teammate loudly protested what he called “raw prejudice.” That teammate was Gerald R. Ford. The stuff of legend At Ford’s funeral services on Jan. 2, 2007, President George W. Bush eulogized the Grand Rapids native and nation’s 38th president with a speech that featured a segment on the two former U-M teammates. “Gerald Ford was furious at Georgia Tech for making the demand, and for the University of Michigan for caving in,” Bush said. “He agreed to play only after Willis Ward personally asked him to. The stand Gerald Ford took that day was never forgotten by his friend. And Gerald Ford never forgot that day either — and three decades later, he proudly supported the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act in the United States Congress.” And while many who heard the speech knew of Ford’s political views and how he assumed the presidency in a tumultuous post-Watergate era, few knew the story of Willis Ward. G0222Documen.JPG Chris Clark | The Grand Rapids Press Committed to film: Brian Kruger and Buddy Moorehouse are directors of a documentary based on Gerald R. Ford and Willis Ward playing football at the University of Michigan. Ford’s youngest son, Steven, only heard the anecdote for the first time in 1994 while with his family at Michigan Stadium to celebrate his father’s No. 48 jersey being retired. “I’m watching Dad and he’s got tears in his eyes as the halftime is over,” Steven Ford said. “We’re all standing there, trying to soak it in and this man pulls me aside — he’d gone to college with my dad — and starts telling me the story.” As the story goes, Georgia Tech expected Michigan to follow the “gentleman’s agreement” which coerced Northern schools into benching their black players when playing teams from the South. Yost — a West Virginia native who had ties to Southern schools — obliged, despite pressure from local media and protesters, as well as the opportunity to call off the game well before the season started. “(Georgia Tech coach) W.A. Alexander said to Fielding Yost, ‘Michigan has this tradition and we have ours. In order to avoid this embarrassment, we can cancel the game.’ But Fielding Yost was not interested in canceling the game,” said Tyran Steward, a doctoral student in history at Ohio State, who wrote his master’s thesis on the topic while studying at Eastern Michigan University. “We understand Fielding Yost to be very influential in making contributions to the University of Michigan. He is, in many ways, to be thanked for putting U of M on the map in becoming a football powerhouse. He is, in all intents and purposes, the architect of the Big Ten. But he is also an individual who was committed to racial bigotry and racial prejudice. He’s a son of the South.” Ford, the team’s starting center, was enraged at the idea of taking the field without his close friend. Ward called Ford the first friend he made at Michigan, as the two entered as freshmen together and roomed together on road trips. “But when Ford found out about it, he was just outraged and went to Harry Kipke and told him if (Ward) didn’t play, (Ford) was going to quit the team,” said Buddy Moorehouse, a Michigan film director who is partnering with filmmaker Brian Kruger to create a documentary on the incident they hope to include in a 10-part series this year about the history of Michigan football. In the end, it was Ward himself who encouraged Ford to play in the game, citing the team’s poor start and need for Ford’s play. “Apparently it was one of the best games Ford ever had,” Moorehouse said. “During the game, there was this player on Georgia Tech that was using racial slurs and talking trash. Ford and this other Michigan lineman put a hit on this guy that knocked him out of the game. Afterward, they went and told Ward, ‘That was for you.’” Michigan won the game, 9-2. It would be the team’s only win of the season. Ward earned a law degree and went on to serve as the chairman of the Michigan Public Service Commission, as well as a probate judge in Wayne County. His friend, Jerry, went on to be president of the United States. Neither of them forgot 1934. “Willis Ward becomes one of those individuals in the same vein as Jackie Robinson, Booker T. Washington, Joe Louis — figures who attempt to work within the framework of American democracy and believe in working side-by-side with whites to attack these injurious racial issues,” Steward said. Ford also remained true to the incident, landing himself far left of many of his fellow Republicans on issues such as civil rights and affirmative action. “Jerry Ford, throughout his life, kept looking back at the discrimination that Willis Ward faced, and it really helped him form his opinions on things like civil rights and affirmative action,” Moorehouse said. WARDHEADLINE4.JPG Courtesy Photos | University of Michigan Bentley Historical Library In 1999, Ford wrote an editorial for the New York Times about “the pursuit of racial justice” in favor of the contentious affirmative action policy. The theme of the piece was Willis Ward. “His sacrifice led me to question how educational administrators could capitulate to raw prejudice. A university, after all, is both a preserver of tradition and a hotbed of innovation. So long as books are kept open, we tell ourselves, minds can never be closed,” Ford wrote. “But doors, too, must be kept open. Tolerance, breadth of mind and appreciation for the world beyond our neighborhoods: These can be learned on the football field and in the science lab as well as in the lecture hall. But only if students are exposed to America in all her variety.” Steven Ford may have reached his adult years before first hearing the story of the 1934 Wolverines, but Samuel “Buzz” Thomas has been hearing stories about his grandfather, Willis Ward, for years. “It’s really about more than politics,” said Thomas, who recently served eight years as a state senator for Michigan’s 4th district and currently leads a Detroit-based public affairs consulting group. “It’s about being a part of the big Michigan family and one big human family. Gerald Ford is a giant for acknowledging and doing what he did in the 1930s.” Since first hearing the story before his grandfather’s death in the early 1980s, Thomas has taken to telling the tale himself. Thomas found himself discussing his lineage on the Senate floor in 2007, a year after Ford died. There was debate in the Senate about replacing a statue of Zachariah Chandler — a former U.S. senator and secretary of the interior and one of Michigan’s two statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection at the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. — with a statue of the late Gerald Ford. So Thomas recounted the story of Ford and his grandfather. “I simply became the Democratic voice supporting the Republican president as someone we could be proud of,” Thomas said. “He’d done some very laudable things at a time when people didn’t do what he was doing. Friendship mattered more to him. It was something my grandfather never forgot throughout his whole adult life.” After the room came to a hush, the resolution passed; there now is a Gerald Ford statue in Washington, D.C. And there is a story that many — Moorehouse, Steward, Thomas and Steven Ford included — will continue to tell. “When my dad’s teammate told me the story, he said, ‘Son, do you know what respect is?’ And I just kind of stood there with tears running down my eyes as he was talking about respect and character,” Steven Ford said. “He said, ‘Respect is what you do when nobody’s watching. And nobody was watching your dad as a young kid at the University of Michigan.” Former U.S. President Gerald R. Ford is not only one of Michigan’s most famous and important graduates, but he is also one of the University’s great student-athletes. On Oct. 8, 1994, Michigan retired his jersey number 48 during halftime of the Wolverines’ game against Michigan State. Ford’s jersey became just the fifth in Michigan’s illustrious history to be retired. The five jersey numbers honor seven players because three Wolverines -- the Wistert brothers -- each wore number 11. Six of the players are linemen and all were two-way players. Years after the retirement of Bennie Oosterbaan’s “47,” it was announced that “11” would disappear forever from the Michigan rosters, giving special recognition to three of the Wolverines greatest tackles, Francis, Albert and Alvin Wistert. Tom Harmon, “Old 98,” had his number retired after winning the Heisman Trophy in 1940 and Ron Kramer’s “87” never will be worn by another Wolverine because he was the epitome of the rugged defensive end and also made impossible catches as an offensive end. Though Ford’s football accomplishments may pale in comparison with his political achievements, the same would be said for any former President of the United States. While at Michigan, Ford earned three varsity letters from 1932-34 and was named Michigan Most Valuable Player his senior year as a starting center. On Jan. 1, 1935, Ford played on the East Team in the Shrine Crippled Children’s Hospital game in San Francisco. In 1935, he played in the all-star game against the World Champion Chicago Bears following his standout senior season. Ford, a 1935 Michigan graduate, received his law degree from Yale in 1941 while also serving as an assistant football coach there. He went on to serve in the Navy for four years of active duty and returned home in 1946 with the rank of Lieutenant Commander. On Jan. 3, 1949 Ford was sworn into Congress. The Grand Rapids native, also a member of the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame, was known as a “congressman’s congressman,” and was elected as the minority leader of the House of Representatives in 1965. He would later be named Vice President, and then President of the United States in 1974. Gerald Ford became the 38th president of the United States following Richard Nixon's resignation, in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal. IN THESE GROUPS FAMOUS PEOPLE IN THE VIETNAM WAR FAMOUS GOVERNMENT U.S. VICE PRESIDENTS FAMOUS PEOPLE NAMED FORD Show All Groups 1 of 3  «  » QUOTES “I assume the Presidency under extraordinary circumstances.... This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts.” —Gerald Ford Synopsis Gerald Ford was born on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska. A star college football player, he served in the Navy during WWII. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1948, Ford represented Michigan's 5th District for nearly 25 years before suddenly finding himself at the crossroads of history. He was elevated to vice president, and then became the 38th U.S. president due to Richard Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal and subsequent resignation. Ford was defeated by Jimmy Carter in the 1976 election. He died in California in 2006. Gerald Ford - Mini Biography (TV-14; 3:24) Vice President Gerald Ford was catapulted into the presidency after the Watergate scandal in the '70s. Learn more about his life beyond his stint in the White House in this mini biography. Early Life Gerald R. Ford Jr. was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska, but kept neither his name nor his hometown for long. In just weeks, he was whisked away by his mother, Dorothy Ayer Gardner, to her parents' home in Grand Rapids, Michigan. A plucky woman who would not tolerate abuse, she divorced his father, Leslie Lynch King Sr., within the year, and less than three years later, was married to Gerald Rudolff Ford, a local paint company salesman, from whence "Jerry" Jr. got his name—although it was not made legal until he was 22 years old. Growing up in Grand Rapids, in the close-knit family with three younger brothers, Jerry Ford was not even aware of the existence of his biological father until he was 17. He became a local sports hero as captain of his high school football team and an avid Eagle Scout. His athletic prowess as a Wolverine at the University of Michigan eared him the designation of Most Valuable Player. But instead of taking up a professional football career as offered by both the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers, Ford opted to take his economics degree to Yale University, where he attended law school and also worked as a football and boxing coach. Early Political Career Ford got his first taste of political life in 1940 as a volunteer for Wendell Wilkie's presidential campaign, attending the Republican Convention that year in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A year later, he graduated from Yale Law School in the top third of his class, and then returned home to Grand Rapids to work in a law firm, putting his toe in the water of local politics. However, WWII intervened, and Ford enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1942. He returned to civilian life in 1946, having earned the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, the Philippine Liberation Ribbon, the American Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal, and quickly resumed his law practice and civic activities. In August 1947, Ford met his future wife, Elizabeth (Betty) Bloomer Warren, through mutual friends. A former model and dancer with Martha Graham's company in New York City, the recent divorcee had recently returned home to Grand Rapids and was employed as department store fashion coordinator, while also teaching dance to handicapped children. Less than a year later, Ford decided to run for Congress to represent his Michigan district (District 5). He and Betty were married in October 1948, a few weeks before his sweeping victory, which would sweep both newlyweds away to Washington, D.C. for the next 30 years. Declining a suggestion to run for the Senate in 1954, Ford's long career as a congressman encompassed work on foreign policy, the military, spending, the space program and the Warren Commission. Although he served as House minority leader, Ford's ambition to be speaker of the House seemed out of reach and, thusly, the congressman was contemplating retirement following his 13th term in the House concluded in 1976. The changing political atmosphere of the '70s would dictate otherwise, however. On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned under allegations of income tax evasion and bribery. Two days later, President Richard Nixon nominated Gerald Ford to take his place, under the provisions of the Constitution's 25th Amendment, and in two months, Ford was sworn in as the country's 40th vice president. U.S. Presidency Over the ensuing months, investigations into Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal sped up, culminating with Nixon's resignation on August 8, 1974. One day later, on August 9, 1974, Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of the United States. The following month, President Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon—a move that hung like a shadow over Ford's longstanding reputation for integrity. That same month, Betty Ford was diagnosed with breast cancer, and subsequently underwent a radical mastectomy. Ford's early presidency marked a state of tumult for the nation, with downfalls including a seriously ailing economy (and an almost bankrupt New York City), an essential defeat in the Vietnam War, rocky foreign relations and an energy crisis. In addition to that, around this time, two assassination attempts, by Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme and Sara Jane Moore, were made on Ford's life. Following in Nixon's footsteps with China, Ford was the first U.S. president to visit Japan, but he is often remembered as clumsy, ironic given his athletic prowess, due to several trips, falls and gaffes that were immortalized in parody by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live. Challenged by fellow Republican Ronald Reagan during his campaign for re-election in 1976, Ford eked out the nomination only to be defeated by Jimmy Carter in the presidential election. Death and Legacy Gerald Ford died on December 26, 2006, at home in Rancho Mirage, California, at the age of 93—the oldest any president has lived to date. Named in his honor are a presidential library in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and a museum in Grand Rapids, but both are eclipsed in renown by the Betty Ford Rehabilitation Clinic in California. Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977. Prior to this he was the 40th Vice President of the United States, serving from 1973 until President Richard Nixon's resignation in 1974. He was the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment, following the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew on October 10, 1973. Becoming president upon Richard Nixon's departure on August 9, 1974, he claimed the distinction as the first and to date the only person to have served as both Vice President and President of the United States without being elected to either office. Before ascending to the vice presidency, Ford served 25 years as Representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district, the final 9 of them as the House Minority Leader. As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a move toward détente in the Cold War. With the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U.S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation and a recession during his tenure.[1] One of his more controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Ford's presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the President.[2] In the GOP presidential primary campaign of 1976, Ford defeated then-former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. He narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic challenger, then-former Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter, on November 2. Following his years as President, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. After experiencing health problems, he died in his home on December 26, 2006. Ford lived longer than any other U.S. president, 93 years and 165 days, while his 895-day presidency remains the shortest term of all presidents who did not die in office. As of 2016, he is also the most recent former president and vice president to die. Contents  [hide]  1 Early life 1.1 Scouting and athletics 1.2 Education 2 U.S. Navy Reserve, World War II 2.1 Post-war 3 Marriage and children 4 House of Representatives 4.1 Warren Commission 4.2 House Minority Leader 5 Vice presidency, 1973–74 6 Presidency, 1974–77 6.1 Swearing-in 6.2 Pardon of Nixon 6.3 Presidential Proclamation 4313 6.4 Administration and cabinet 6.5 Midterm elections 6.6 Domestic policy 6.6.1 Budget 6.7 Foreign policy 6.7.1 Middle East 6.7.2 Vietnam 6.7.3 Mayaguez and Panmunjom 6.7.4 Indonesian invasion of East Timor 6.8 Assassination attempts 6.9 Judicial appointments 6.9.1 Supreme Court 6.9.2 Other judicial appointments 6.10 1976 presidential election 7 Post-presidential years, 1977–2006 7.1 Activity 7.2 Health problems 8 Death and legacy 8.1 Longevity 8.2 Public image 9 Honors 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 12.1 Primary sources 13 External links Early life[edit] Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr., on July 14, 1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner, and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr., a wool trader and a son of prominent banker Charles Henry King and Martha Alicia King (née Porter). Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her son's birth. She took her son with her to the Oak Park, Illinois home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, Clarence Haskins James. From there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913; she gained full custody of her son. Ford's paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930.[3] A young boy circa 1916. Leslie Lynch King Jr. (later known as Gerald R. Ford) in 1916 Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother.[4] James M. Cannon, a member of the Ford administration, wrote in a biography of the late president that the Kings' separation and divorce were sparked when, a few days after Ford's birth, Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife, his infant son, and Ford's nursemaid. Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man.[5] After two and a half years with her parents, on February 1, 1916, Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford, a salesman in a family-owned paint and varnish company. They then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr. The future president was never formally adopted, and did not legally change his name until December 3, 1935; he also used a more conventional spelling of his middle name.[6] He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half brothers from his mother's second marriage: Thomas Gardner "Tom" Ford (1918–1995), Richard Addison "Dick" Ford (1924–2015), and James Francis "Jim" Ford (1927–2001).[7] Ford also had three half-siblings from his father's second marriage: Marjorie King (1921–1993), Leslie Henry King (1923–1976), and Patricia Jane King (born 1925). They never saw one another as children and he did not know them at all. Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17, when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth. That year his biological father, Leslie King, whom Ford described as a "carefree, well-to-do man who didn't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son", approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant. The two "maintained a sporadic contact" until Leslie King Sr.'s death in 1941.[4][8] Ford maintained his distance emotionally, saying, "My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful. So I couldn't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing."[9] Scouting and athletics[edit] Two men in suits and another man in a Boy Scout uniform stand beside 10 seated teenaged boys in Boy Scout uniforms. Ford is indicated by a red circle. Eagle Scout Gerald Ford (circled in red) in 1929; Michigan Governor Fred W. Green at far left, holding hat A uniformed but helmetless American Football player is shown on a football field. He is in a ready position, with legs in a wide stance and both hands on a football in front of him. Ford as a center on the University of Michigan football team, 1933 Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America, and earned that program's highest rank, Eagle Scout.[10] In later years, Ford received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970 and Silver Buffalo Award from the Boy Scouts of America. He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency.[10] Scouting was so important to Ford that his family asked that Scouts participate in his funeral. About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession, where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum. A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral.[11] Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School and was a star athlete and captain of his football team.[12] In 1930, he was selected to the All-City team of the Grand Rapids City League. He also attracted the attention of college recruiters.[9] Attending the University of Michigan as an undergraduate, Ford played center, linebacker and long snapper for the school's football team[13] and helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933. The team suffered a steep decline in his 1934 senior year, however, winning only one game. Ford was the team's star nonetheless, and after a game during which Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota (the eventual national champion) to a scoreless tie in the first half, assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan later said, "When I walked into the dressing room at halftime, I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them. Ford and [Cedric] Sweet played their hearts out. They were everywhere on defense." Ford later recalled, "During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics, I often thought of the experiences before, during, and after that game in 1934. Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation, take action, and make every effort possible despite adverse odds." His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player, with one assistant coach noting, "They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause."[14] During Ford's senior year a controversy developed when the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets refused to play a scheduled game if a black player named Willis Ward took the field. Even after protests from students, players and alumni, university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game. Ford was Ward's best friend on the team and they roomed together while on road trips. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision, but eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play.[15] During the same season, in a game against the University of Chicago, Ford became the only future U.S. president to tackle a future Heisman Trophy winner when he brought down running back Jay Berwanger, who would win the first Heisman the following year.[16] In 1934, Ford was selected for the Eastern Team on the Shriner's East West Crippled Children game at San Francisco (a benefit for crippled children), played on January 1, 1935. As part of the 1935 Collegiate All-Star football team, Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All-Star Game at Soldier Field.[17] In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career, the University of Michigan retired Ford's No. 48 jersey in 1994. With the blessing of the Ford family, it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13.[18] Ford remained interested in football and his school throughout life, occasionally attending games. Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices, at one point asking to join the players in the huddle.[19] Ford often had the Naval band play the University of Michigan fight song, The Victors, before state events instead of Hail to the Chief.[20] He also selected the song to be played during his funeral procession at the U.S. Capitol.[21] On his death in December 2006, the University of Michigan Marching Band played the fight song for him one final time, for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan.[22] Ford was also an avid golfer. In 1977, he shot a hole in one during a Pro-am held in conjunction with the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic at Colonial Country Club in Memphis, Tennessee. He received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAA's highest honor.[23] Education[edit] At Michigan, Ford became a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Omicron chapter) and washed dishes at his fraternity house to earn money for college expenses. Following his graduation in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics, he turned down contract offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League to take a coaching position at Yale and apply to its law school.[24] Ford continued to contribute to football and boxing, accepting an assistant coaching job for both at Yale in September 1935.[25] Ford hoped to attend Yale's law school beginning in 1935 while serving as boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach. Yale officials at first denied his admission to the law school because of his full-time coaching responsibilities. He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School[26] and was eventually admitted in spring 1938 to Yale Law School.[27] Ford earned his LL.B. degree in 1941 (later amended to Juris Doctor), graduating in the top 25 percent of his class. His introduction to politics came in the summer of 1940 when he worked in Wendell Willkie's presidential campaign. While attending Yale Law School, he joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr., and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act. The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee, a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II.[28] Ford graduated from law school in 1941, and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter. In May 1941, he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend, Philip W. Buchen,[25] who would later serve as Ford's White House counsel. But overseas developments caused a change in plans, and Ford responded to the attack on Pearl Harbor by enlisting in the Navy.[29] U.S. Navy Reserve, World War II[edit] Twenty-eight Sailors in the uniform of the United States Navy pose on the deck of a World War II-era Aircraft Carrier. The Gunnery officers of the USS Monterey. Ford is second from the right, in the front row. Ford received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13, 1942. On April 20, he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis, Maryland. After one month of training, he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills, ordnance, gunnery, first aid and military drill. In addition, he coached in all nine sports that were offered, but mostly in swimming, boxing and football. During the one year he was at the Preflight School, he was promoted to Lieutenant, Junior Grade on June 2, 1942, and to Lieutenant in March 1943. Navy pilots in forward elevator well playing basketball. Jumper at left is Gerald R. Ford, mid-1944 Applying for sea duty, Ford was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey (CVL-26), at New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey. From the ship's commissioning on June 17, 1943, until the end of December 1944, Ford served as the assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey. While he was on board, the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944. In 1943, the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts, and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng, New Ireland in 1943. During the spring of 1944, the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas, Western Carolines, and northern New Guinea, as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea.[30] After overhaul, from September to November 1944, aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island, participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus, and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro.[30] The head and shoulders of a man in a World War II-era uniform of the United States Navy. Ford in Navy uniform, 1945 Although the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces, the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by the typhoon that hit Admiral William Halsey's Third Fleet on December 18–19, 1944. The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon. The Monterey was damaged by a fire, which was started by several of the ship's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck. During the storm, Ford narrowly avoided becoming a casualty himself. As he was going to his battle station on the bridge of the ship in the early morning of December 18, the ship rolled twenty-five degrees, which caused Ford to lose his footing and slide toward the edge of the deck. The two-inch steel ridge around the edge of the carrier slowed him enough so he could roll, and he twisted into the catwalk below the deck. As he later stated, "I was lucky; I could have easily gone overboard." Ford, serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck, was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart Ingersoll. The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again.[31] After the fire, the Monterey was declared unfit for service, and the crippled carrier reached Ulithi on December 21 before continuing across the Pacific to Bremerton, Washington where it underwent repairs. On December 24, 1944, at Ulithi, Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre-Flight School at Saint Mary's College of California, where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945. One of his duties was to coach football. From the end of April 1945 to January 1946, he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command, Naval Air Station, Glenview, Illinois as the Staff Physical and Military Training Officer. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander. In January 1946, he was sent to the Separation Center, Great Lakes to be processed out. He was released from active duty under honorable conditions on February 23, 1946. On June 28, 1946, the Secretary of the Navy accepted Ford's resignation from the Naval Reserve. Gerald Ford received the following military awards: the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with nine 3⁄16" bronze stars (for operations in the Gilbert Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Marshall Islands, Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids, Hollandia, Marianas, Western Carolines, Western New Guinea, and the Leyte Operation), the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3⁄16" bronze stars (for Leyte and Mindoro), and the World War II Victory Medal.[29] Post-war[edit] Ford was a member of several civic organizations, including the Junior Chamber of Commerce (Jaycees), American Legion, AMVETS, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Sons of the Revolution,[32] and Veterans of Foreign Wars. In 1992, the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Ford its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service and his subsequent government service. Gerald R. Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30, 1949.[33] He later said in 1975, "When I took my obligation as a master mason—incidentally, with my three younger brothers—I recalled the value my own father attached to that order. But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States."[34] Marriage and children[edit] A man in a suit leads a flower-carrying woman by the hand, walking out of a chapel. The Fords on their wedding day, October 15, 1948 On October 15, 1948, at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids, Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer Warren (1918–2011), a department store fashion consultant. Warren had been a John Robert Powers fashion model and a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company. She had previously been married to and divorced from William G. Warren. At the time of his engagement, Ford was campaigning for what would be his first of thirteen terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives. The wedding was delayed until shortly before the elections because, as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford, "Jerry was running for Congress and wasn't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced ex-dancer."[35] The couple had four children: Michael Gerald, born in 1949 John Gardner, known as Jack, born in 1951 Steven Meigs, born in 1956 Susan Elizabeth, born in 1958 House of Representatives[edit] A billboard shows a portrait of a man in a suit, with the text "To work for You in congress" at the top, followed by "Gerald R. Ford Jr.", followed by "Republican Primary September 14", with "United States Representative" across the bottom of the sign. A billboard for Ford's 1948 Congressional Campaign After returning to Grand Rapids, Ford became active in local Republican politics, and supporters urged him to take on Bartel J. Jonkman, the incumbent Republican congressman. Military service had changed his view of the world. "I came back a converted internationalist", Ford wrote, "and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed, dedicated isolationist. And I thought he ought to be replaced. Nobody thought I could win. I ended up winning two to one."[9] During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked.[36] Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.[37] Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a "Congressman's Congressman".[38] Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding the Grand Rapids congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in The New York Times described him, Ford "saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career."[39] Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee. Ford described his philosophy as "a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy."[40] In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become Speaker of the House.[41] Warren Commission[edit] The Warren Commission presents its report to President Johnson Further information: Warren Commission and Assassination of John F. Kennedy On November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission, a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.[42] Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of Lee Harvey Oswald, the accused assassin. According to a 1963 FBI memo released in 2008, Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director, Cartha DeLoach, about the panel's activities.[43][44][45] In the preface to his book, A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission, Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions.[46] House Minority Leader[edit] Men in suits are shown meeting in a conference room. Five men are shown, one of whom is speaking to man on his right. A sixth man is visible from behind, facing the speaker. Ford meets with President Richard Nixon as House Minority Leader. Four men in suits are outdoors, speaking to each other in front of a large white automobile. Congressman Gerald Ford, MSFC director Wernher von Braun, Congressman George H. Mahon, and NASA Administrator James E. Webb visit the Marshall Space Flight Center for a briefing on the Saturn program, 1964. In 1964, Democratic President Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party, securing another term as president and taking 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives. Following the election, members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new Minority Leader. Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve; after consulting with his family, he agreed. After a closely contested election, Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as Minority Leader.[47] The Republicans had 140 seats in the House compared with the 295 seats held by the Democrats. Consequently, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the "Great Society." During the first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.[48] Criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow in 1966, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the 1966 midterm elections saw a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans. This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House, but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs.[47] Ford's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public following a speech from the floor of the House, in which he questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion.[47] The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of playing "too much football without a helmet".[47][49] As Minority Leader in the House, Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen, in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson's policies. Many in the press jokingly called this "The Ev and Jerry Show."[50] Johnson said at the time, "Jerry Ford is so dumb he can't fart and chew gum at the same time."[51] The press, used to sanitizing LBJ's salty language, reported this as "Gerald Ford can't walk and chew gum at the same time."[52] Ford's role shifted under President Nixon to being an advocate for the White House agenda. Congress passed several of Nixon's proposals, including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969. Another high-profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance act. Passed in 1972, the act established a Revenue Sharing program for state and local governments.[53] Ford's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress, and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor (compared with 185 against).[47][54] During the 8 years (1965–1973) he served as Minority Leader, Ford won many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality.[47] An office building in the U.S. Capitol Complex, House Annex 2, was renamed for Gerald Ford as the Ford House Office Building. Vice presidency, 1973–74[edit] Two women are flanked by two men in suits, standing in a room of the White House. Gerald and Betty Ford with the President and First Lady Pat Nixon after President Nixon nominated Ford to be Vice President, October 13, 1973 On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion and money laundering, part of a negotiated resolution to a scheme in which he accepted $29,500 in bribes while governor of Maryland. According to The New York Times, Nixon "sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement. The advice was unanimous. 'We gave Nixon no choice but Ford,' House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later".[39] Ford was nominated to take Agnew's position on October 12, the first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented. The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27. Only three Senators, all Democrats, voted against Ford's confirmation: Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin, Thomas Eagleton of Missouri and William Hathaway of Maine. On December 6, the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35. One hour after the confirmation vote in the House, Ford took the oath of office as Vice President of the United States. Following Ford's appointment, the Watergate investigation continued until Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford on Thursday, August 1, 1974, and told him that "smoking gun" evidence had been found. The evidence left little doubt that President Nixon had been a part of the Watergate cover-up. At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president's residence in Washington, D.C. However, "Al Haig [asked] to come over and see me," Ford later related, "to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.' And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house.'"[9] Presidency, 1974–77[edit] Swearing-in[edit] Gerald Ford is sworn in as the 38th President of the United States by Chief Justice Warren Burger in the White House East Room, while Betty Ford looks on. When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford assumed the presidency, making him the only person to assume the presidency without having been previously voted into either the presidential or vice presidential office. Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech broadcast live to the nation.[55] Ford noted the peculiarity of his position: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots, and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers."[56] He went on to state: Ford and his golden retriever, Liberty, in the Oval Office, 1974 I have not sought this enormous responsibility, but I will not shirk it. Those who nominated and confirmed me as Vice President were my friends and are my friends. They were of both parties, elected by all the people and acting under the Constitution in their name. It is only fitting then that I should pledge to them and to you that I will be the President of all the people.[57] He also stated: My fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over. Our Constitution works; our great Republic is a government of laws and not of men. Here, the people rule. But there is a higher Power, by whatever name we honor Him, who ordains not only righteousness but love, not only justice, but mercy. ... let us restore the golden rule to our political process, and let brotherly love purge our hearts of suspicion and hate.[58] Message to Congress nominating Nelson A. Rockefeller to be Vice President (August 20, 1974) A portion of the speech would later be memorialized with a plaque at the entrance to his presidential museum. On August 20, Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated.[59] Rockefeller's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush. Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, such as Henry Kissinger. Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both the House and Senate. Some, including Barry Goldwater, voted against him.[60] Pardon of Nixon[edit] Main article: Pardon of Richard Nixon A man in a suit is seated at a table as he speaks into a bank of microphones. An audience is visible behind him. President Ford appears at a House Judiciary Subcommittee hearing regarding his pardon of Richard Nixon Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Nixon Pardon On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311, which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while President.[61][62][63] In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."[64] The Nixon pardon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and claimed a "corrupt bargain" had been struck between the men.[9] They claimed Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation that elevated Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon. According to Bob Woodward, Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared.[65] Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the election in 1976, an observation with which Ford agreed.[65] In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence".[39] On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting President to testify before the House of Representatives since Abraham Lincoln.[66][67] In the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as "my predecessor" or "the former president." When, on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent Fred Barnes pressed Ford on the matter, Ford replied in surprisingly frank manner: "I just can’t bring myself to do it.”[68] After Ford left the White House in 1977, the former President privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States, a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt.[69] In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon.[70] In presenting the award to Ford, Senator Ted Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon of Nixon, but later stated that history had proved Ford to have made the correct decision.[71] Pardon given by President Ford under Proclamation 4313 Presidential Proclamation 4313[edit] On September 16, shortly after he announced the Nixon pardon, Ford introduced a conditional amnesty program for Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada as well as for military deserters. The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of 2 years service for those who had served less than 2 years of honorable service in the military.[72] Full pardon for the draft dodgers, however, did not come about until the Carter Administration.[73] The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters[74] established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a Presidential Pardon and a change in Military discharge status. Administration and cabinet[edit] Upon assuming office, Ford inherited Nixon's Cabinet. During Ford's brief administration, only Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon remained. Ford appointed William Coleman as Secretary of Transportation, the second black man to serve in a presidential cabinet (after Robert Clifton Weaver) and the first appointed in a Republican administration.[75] The Ford Cabinet Office Name Term President Gerald Ford 1974–1977 Vice President none* 1974 Nelson Rockefeller 1974–1977 Secretary of State Henry Kissinger 1974–1977 Secretary of Treasury William E. Simon 1974–1977 Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger 1974–1975 Donald Rumsfeld 1975–1977 Attorney General William B. Saxbe 1974–1975 Edward H. Levi 1975–1977 Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton 1974–1975 Stanley K. Hathaway 1975 Thomas S. Kleppe 1975–1977 Secretary of Agriculture Earl Butz 1974–1976 John Albert Knebel 1976–1977 Secretary of Commerce Frederick B. Dent 1974–1975 Rogers Morton 1975 Elliot Richardson 1975–1977 Secretary of Labor Peter J. Brennan 1974–1975 John Thomas Dunlop 1975–1976 William Usery Jr. 1976–1977 Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare Caspar Weinberger 1974–1975 F. David Mathews 1975–1977 Secretary of Housing and Urban Development James Thomas Lynn 1974–1975 Carla Anderson Hills 1975–1977 Secretary of Transportation Claude Brinegar 1974–1975 William Thaddeus Coleman Jr. 1975–1977 * A vacancy by ascension briefly occurred for the position of Vice President from August 9, 1974 to December 19, 1974 after Richard Nixon's resignation from office. Other cabinet-level posts: White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig (1974) Donald Rumsfeld (1974–1975) Dick Cheney (1975–1977) Director of the Office of Management and Budget Roy Ash (1974–1975) James T. Lynn (1975–1977) United States Trade Representative William D. Eberle (1974–1975) Frederick B. Dent (1975–1977) Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency Russell E. Train (1974–1977) United States Ambassador to the United Nations John A. Scali (1974–1975) Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1975–1976) William Scranton (1976–1977) Other important posts: United States National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger (1974–1975) Brent Scowcroft (1975–1977) Director of Central Intelligence William E. Colby (1974–1976) George H. W. Bush (1976–1977) Press Secretary Jerald terHorst (1974) Ronald H. Nessen (1974–1977) Ford selected George H.W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975.[76] Ford's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld. In 1975, Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest-ever Secretary of Defense. Ford chose a young Wyoming politician, Richard Cheney, to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff and later campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign.[77] Ford's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 has been referred to by political commentators as the "Halloween Massacre". Midterm elections[edit] Ford in the Oval Office, 1974 Main articles: United States House elections, 1974 and United States Senate elections, 1974 The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place fewer than three months after Ford assumed office and in the wake of the Watergate scandal. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections, taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, and increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats. This was one more than the number needed (290) for a two-thirds majority, necessary to override a Presidential veto (or to propose a constitutional amendment). Perhaps due in part to this fact, the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson was President of the United States (1865–1869).[78] Even Ford's old, reliably Republican seat was taken by Democrat Richard Vander Veen, defeating Republican Robert VanderLaan. In the Senate elections, the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100-seat body.[79] Domestic policy[edit] Twenty people meet in a conference room around an oval table. One man, at the center of the table on the right-hand side, is addressing the others. All are wearing suits or similar attire. President Ford meets with his Cabinet in 1975 The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. One of the first acts the new president took to deal with the economy was to create the Economic Policy Board by Executive Order on September 30, 1974.[80] In response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public in October 1974 and asked them to "Whip Inflation Now". As part of this program, he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons.[81] At the time, inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy, more so than growing unemployment. They felt as though controlling inflation would work to fix unemployment.[80] To rein in inflation, it was necessary to control the public's spending. To try to mesh service and sacrifice, "WIN" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption.[82] On October 4, 1974, Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress and as a part of this speech kicked off the "WIN" campaign. Over the next nine days 101,240 Americans mailed in "WIN" pledges.[80] In hindsight, this was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick without offering any means of solving the underlying problems.[83] The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one-year, five-percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals. This plan would also take $4.4 billion out of the budget, bringing federal spending below $300 billion.[84] At the time, inflation was over twelve percent.[85] Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized; health officials announced that "swine flu" was the cause. Soon after, public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated.[86] Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, some 25% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December of that year. The vaccine was blamed for twenty-five deaths; more people died from the shots than from the swine flu.[87] A man sits at his desk, smoking a pipe, while two other men speak to him from the other side of the desk. Cheney, Rumsfeld and President Ford in the Oval Office, 1975 Ford was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, issuing Presidential Proclamation no. 4383 in 1975: In this Land of the Free, it is right, and by nature it ought to be, that all men and all women are equal before the law. Now, therefore, I, Gerald R. Ford, President of the United States of America, to remind all Americans that it is fitting and just to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment adopted by the Congress of the United States of America, in order to secure legal equality for all women and men, do hereby designate and proclaim August 26, 1975, as Women's Equality Day.[88] As president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported "a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice".[89] This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade, which he opposed.[90] Ford came under criticism for a 60 Minutes interview his wife Betty gave in 1975, in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a "great, great decision".[91] During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice.[92] Budget[edit] The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was President.[93] Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting, Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" according to the official White House press release for the bill signing.[94] The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier.[95] The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment, which reached nine percent in May 1975.[96] In January 1975, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation.[84] Ford was criticized greatly for quickly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction. In Congress, the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $22.8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts.[80] In March 1975, Congress passed, and Ford signed into law, these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975. This resulted in a federal deficit of around $53 billion for the 1975 fiscal year and $73.7 billion for 1976.[97] When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975, Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford's support for a federal bailout. The incident prompted the New York Daily News' famous headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead", referring to a speech in which "Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for 'a federal bail-out of New York City'".[98][99] The following month, November 1975, Ford changed his stance and asked Congress to approve federal loans to New York City.[100] Foreign policy[edit] Two men in suits are seated, each signing a document in front of them. Six men, one in a military uniform, stand behind them. Ford meets with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev during the Vladivostok Summit, November 1974, to sign a joint communiqué on the SALT treaty Ford makes remarks at a Reciprocal Dinner in Beijing on December 4, 1975. Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the Nixon Administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT).[101] The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon's visit to China was reinforced by Ford's December 1975 visit to the communist country.[102] In 1975, the Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords[103] with the Soviet Union, creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch, an independent non-governmental organization created to monitor compliance that later evolved into Human Rights Watch.[104] Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the Group of Seven (G7) industrialized nations (initially the G5) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada. Ford supported international solutions to issues. "We live in an interdependent world and, therefore, must work together to resolve common economic problems," he said in a 1974 speech.[105] According to internal White House and Commission documents posted in February 2016 by the National Security Archive at The George Washington University,[106] the Gerald Ford White House significantly altered the final report of the supposedly independent 1975 Rockefeller Commission investigating CIA domestic activities, over the objections of senior Commission staff. The changes included removal of an entire 86-page section on CIA assassination plots and numerous edits to the report by then-deputy White House Chief of Staff Richard Cheney.[107] Middle East[edit] A map of the world. The United States is indicated in Red, while countries visit by President Ford during his presidency are indicated in Orange. Other countries are indicated in grey. Countries visited by Ford during his presidency In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises. The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. In mid-August, the government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September 1974, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford, concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front, vetoed the bill. A second bill was passed by the house, and vetoed, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until the end of the year.[2] As Ford expected, Turkish relations were considerably disrupted until 1978. Ford with Anwar Sadat in Salzburg, 1975 In the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict, although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress. Ford considered it "stalling" and wrote, "Their [Israeli] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell."[108] During Kissinger's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975, a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal, prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, which included: I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of the negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations. I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region, including our relations with Israel, with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected. You will be notified of our decision.[109] On March 24, Ford received congressional leaders of both parties and informed them of the reassessment of the administration policies in the Middle East. "Reassessment", in practical terms, meant to cancel or suspend further aid to Israel. For six months between March and September 1975, the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel. Rabin notes it was "an innocent-sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American-Israeli relations".[110] As could be expected, the announced reassessments upset the American Jewish community and Israel's well-wishers in Congress. On May 21, Ford "experienced a real shock", seventy-six senators wrote him a letter urging him to be "responsive" to Israel's request for $2.59 billion in military and economic aid. Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized. It was, since the September 1974 ban on arms to Turkey, the second major congressional intrusion upon the President's [foreign policy] prerogatives.[111] The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli "war of nerves" or "test of wills",[112] and after much bargaining, the Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II), was formally signed on September 1 and aid resumed. Vietnam[edit] Ford and his daughter Susan watch as Henry Kissinger shakes hands with Mao Zedong, December 2, 1975 One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continued Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American prisoners of war. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.[113] The accords had been negotiated by United States National Security Advisor Kissinger and North Vietnamese politburo member Le Duc Tho. South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in the final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement. However, anti-war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend his government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords.[114] In December 1974, months after Ford took office, North Vietnamese forces invaded the province of Phuoc Long. General Trần Văn Trà sought to gauge any South Vietnamese or American response to the invasion, as well as to solve logistical issues before proceeding with the invasion.[115] As North Vietnamese forces advanced, Ford requested aid for South Vietnam in a $522 million aid package. The funds had been promised by the Nixon administration, but Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin.[101] Senator Jacob Javits offered "...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid".[101] President Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country.[116] Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave a speech at Tulane University. In that speech, he announced that the Vietnam War was over "...as far as America is concerned".[114] The announcement was met with thunderous applause.[114] Twelve refugees of varying ages, carrying bundles of possessions, arrive on the deck of a United States naval vessel. Three US airmen, as well as a helicopter, are visible in the background. South Vietnamese refugees arrive on a U.S. Navy vessel during Operation Frequent Wind 1,373 U.S. citizens and 5,595 Vietnamese and third country nationals were evacuated from the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon during Operation Frequent Wind. Military and Air America helicopters took evacuees to U.S. Navy ships off-shore during an approximately 24-hour period on April 29 to 30, 1975, immediately preceding the fall of Saigon. During the operation, so many South Vietnamese helicopters landed on the vessels taking the evacuees that some were pushed overboard to make room for more people. Other helicopters, having nowhere to land, were deliberately crash landed into the sea after dropping off their passengers, close to the ships, their pilots bailing out at the last moment to be picked up by rescue boats.[117] Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act. The 1975 Act appropriated $455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees.[118] In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in the years that followed.[119] Mayaguez and Panmunjom[edit] North Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region on two occasions, once when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters and again when American military officers were killed in the demilitarized zone (DMZ) between North and South Korea.[120] The first crisis was the Mayaguez Incident. In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia, Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters.[121] Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the Mayaguez sailors were being released. In the operation, two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down, and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed.[122] Despite the American losses, the operation was seen as a success in the United States and Ford enjoyed an 11-point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath.[123] The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall in Washington, D.C. Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot.[124] But recent work by Andrew Gawthorpe, based on an analysis of the administration's internal discussions, shows that Ford's national security team understood that the seizure of the vessel was a local, and perhaps even accidental, provocation by an immature Khmer government. Nevertheless, they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia.[125] The second crisis, known as the axe murder incident, occurred at Panmunjom, a village which stands in the DMZ between the two Koreas. At the time, this was the only part of the DMZ where forces from the North and the South came into contact with each other. Encouraged by U.S. difficulties in Vietnam, North Korea had been waging a campaign of diplomatic pressure and minor military harassment to try and convince the U.S. to withdraw from South Korea.[126] Then, in August 1976, North Korean forces killed two U.S. officers and injured South Korean guards who were engaged in trimming a tree in Panmunjom's Joint Security Area. The attack coincided with a meeting of the Conference of Non-Aligned Nations in Colombo, Sri Lanka, at which Kim Jong-il, the son of North Korean leader Kim Il-sung, presented the incident as an example of American aggression, helping secure the passage of a motion calling for a U.S. withdrawal from the South.[127] At administration meetings, Kissinger voiced the concern that the North would see the U.S. as "the paper tigers of Saigon" if they did not respond, and Ford agreed with that assessment. After mulling various options the Ford administration decided that it was necessary to respond with a major show of force. A large number of ground forces went to cut down the tree, while at the same time the air force was deployed, which included B-52 bomber flights over Panmunjom. The North Korean government backed down and allowed the tree-cutting to go ahead, and later issued an unprecedented official apology.[128] Indonesian invasion of East Timor[edit] East Timor's decolonization due to political instability in Portugal saw Indonesia posture to annex the new state in 1975. Just hours before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor (now Timor Leste) on December 7, 1975, Ford and Kissinger had visited Indonesian President Suharto in Jakarta and guaranteed American compliance with the Indonesian operation. Suharto had been a key supporter of American influence in Indonesia and Southeast Asia and Ford did not desire to place pressure on the American-Indonesian relationship.[129] Under Ford, a policy of arms sales to the Suharto regime began in 1975, before the invasion. "Roughly 90%" of the Indonesian army's weapons at the time of East Timor's invasion were provided by the U.S. according to George H. Aldrich, a former State Department Deputy Legal Advisor's hearing at the 1977 House International Relations Committee hearing. Post-invasion, Ford's military aid averaged about $30 million annually throughout East Timor's occupation, and arms sales increased exponentially under President Carter. This policy continued until 1999.[130] Assassination attempts[edit] A chaotic scene of motorcade vehicles surrounded by crowd of people including police and press Reaction immediately after the second assassination attempt Main articles: Gerald Ford assassination attempt in Sacramento and Sara Jane Moore Ford faced two assassination attempts during his presidency, occurring within three weeks of each other and in the same state; while in Sacramento, California, on September 5, 1975, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, a follower of Charles Manson, pointed a Colt .45-caliber handgun at Ford.[131] As Fromme pulled the trigger, Larry Buendorf,[132] a Secret Service agent, grabbed the gun and Fromme was taken into custody. She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison; she was paroled on August 14, 2009.[133] In reaction to this attempt, the Secret Service began keeping Ford at a more secure distance from anonymous crowds, a strategy that may have saved his life seventeen days later; as he left the St. Francis Hotel in downtown San Francisco, Sara Jane Moore, standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street, pointed her .38-caliber revolver at him.[134] Moore fired a single round but missed because the sights were off. Just before she fired a second round, retired Marine Oliver Sipple grabbed at the gun and deflected her shot; the bullet struck a wall about six inches above and to the right of Ford's head, then ricocheted and hit a taxi driver, who was slightly wounded. Moore was later sentenced to life in prison. She was paroled on December 31, 2007, having served 32 years.[135] Judicial appointments[edit] Further information: Gerald Ford judicial appointment controversies Supreme Court[edit] Main article: Gerald Ford Supreme Court candidates John Paul Stevens was Ford's only Supreme Court appointment. In 1975, Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas. Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, appointed by President Nixon.[136] During his tenure as House Republican leader, Ford had led efforts to have Douglas impeached.[137] After being confirmed, Stevens eventually disappointed some conservatives by siding with the Court's liberal wing regarding the outcome of many key issues.[138] Nevertheless, President Ford paid tribute to Stevens. "He has served his nation well," Ford said of Stevens, "with dignity, intellect and without partisan political concerns."[139] Other judicial appointments[edit] Main article: List of federal judges appointed by Gerald Ford In addition to the Stevens appointment, Ford appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts.[140] 1976 presidential election[edit] Main article: United States presidential election, 1976 Governor Ronald Reagan congratulates President Ford after the president successfully wins the 1976 Republican nomination, while Bob Dole, Nancy Reagan, and Nelson Rockefeller look on. Ford reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976, but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination. Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam, for signing the Helsinki Accords and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal (negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter, who eventually signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaties). Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries, including North Carolina, Texas, Indiana, and California, before withdrawing from the race at the Republican Convention in Kansas City, Missouri. The conservative insurgency had already convinced Ford to drop the more liberal Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in favor of U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas.[141] In addition to the pardon dispute and lingering anti-Republican sentiment, Ford had to counter a plethora of negative media imagery. Chevy Chase often did pratfalls on Saturday Night Live, imitating Ford, who had been seen stumbling on two occasions during his term. As Chase commented, "He even mentioned in his own autobiography it had an effect over a period of time that affected the election to some degree."[142] President Ford's 1976 election campaign had the advantage that he was an incumbent president during several anniversary events held during the period leading up to the United States Bicentennial. The Washington, D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was presided over by the President and televised nationally.[143] On July 7, 1976, the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom, which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service network. The 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts gave Ford the opportunity to deliver a speech to 110,000 in Concord acknowledging the need for a strong national defense tempered with a plea for "reconciliation, not recrimination" and "reconstruction, not rancor" between the United States and those who would pose "threats to peace".[144] Speaking in New Hampshire on the previous day, Ford condemned the growing trend toward big government bureaucracy and argued for a return to "basic American virtues".[145] Two men stand at podiums on a stage. The man on the right is speaking while gesturing to the man on the left. Two other men are seated, facing the podiums. Ford (at right) and Jimmy Carter in a debate on September 23, 1976. Democratic nominee and former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter campaigned as an outsider and reformer, gaining support from voters dismayed by the Watergate scandal and Nixon pardon. After the Democratic National Convention, he held a huge 33-point lead over Ford in the polls. However, as the campaign continued, the race tightened, and, by election day, the polls showed the race as too close to call. There were three main events in the fall campaign. Most importantly, Carter repeated a promise of a "blanket pardon" for Christian and other religious refugees, and also all Vietnam War draft dodgers (Ford had only issued a conditional amnesty) in response to a question on the subject posed by a reporter during the presidential debates, an act which froze Ford's poll numbers in Ohio, Wisconsin, Hawaii, and Mississippi. (Ford had needed to shift just 11,000 votes in Ohio plus one of the other three in order to win.) It was the first act signed by Carter, on January 20, 1977. Earlier, Playboy magazine had published a controversial interview with Carter; in the interview Carter admitted to having "lusted in my heart" for women other than his wife, which cut into his support among women and evangelical Christians. Also, on September 24, Ford performed well in what was the first televised presidential debate since 1960. Polls taken after the debate showed that most viewers felt that Ford was the winner. Carter was also hurt by Ford's charges that he lacked the necessary experience to be an effective national leader, and that Carter was vague on many issues. Ford campaigns at the Nassau County Veterans Coliseum in Hempstead, New York on October 31, 1976 during the final days of his failed election campaign. Televised presidential debates were reintroduced for the first time since the 1960 election. As such, Ford became the first incumbent president to participate in one. Carter later attributed his victory in the election to the debates, saying they "gave the viewers reason to think that Jimmy Carter had something to offer". The turning point came in the second debate when Ford blundered by stating, "There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford Administration." Ford also said that he did not "believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union".[146] In an interview years later, Ford said he had intended to imply that the Soviets would never crush the spirits of eastern Europeans seeking independence. However, the phrasing was so awkward that questioner Max Frankel was visibly incredulous at the response.[147] As a result of this blunder, and Carter's promise of a full presidential pardon for political refugees from the Vietnam era during the presidential debates, Ford's surge stalled and Carter was able to maintain a slight lead in the polls. In the end, Carter won the election, receiving 50.1% of the popular vote and 297 electoral votes compared with 48.0% and 240 electoral votes for Ford. The election was close enough that had fewer than 25,000 votes shifted in Ohio and Wisconsin – both of which neighbored his home state – Ford would have won the electoral vote with 276 votes to 261 for Carter.[148] Though he lost, in the three months between the Republican National Convention and the election Ford managed to close what was once an alleged 33-point Carter lead to a 2-point margin. Despite his defeat, Ford carried 27 states versus 23 carried by Carter. Had Ford won the election, the provisions of the 22nd Amendment would have disqualified him from running in 1980, because he had served more than two years of Nixon's remaining term. Post-presidential years, 1977–2006[edit] Activity[edit] The Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided. Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing President, saying, "For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land."[149] Ford remained relatively active in the years after his presidency and continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia then served as its chairman of the board of trustees from 1980 to 1986.[150] Later in the year, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former President's advance obituary, an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication.[151] In 1979, Ford published his autobiography, A Time to Heal (Harper/Reader's Digest, 454 pages). A review in Foreign Affairs described it as, "Serene, unruffled, unpretentious, like the author. This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs, but there are no surprises, no deep probings of motives or events. No more here than meets the eye."[152] In addition to his autobiography, in 1987 Ford wrote Humor and the Presidency, a book of humorous political anecdotes. During the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el-Sadat in 1981.[153] Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, visited the Fords' home frequently.[154] Ford and Carter served as honorary co-chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the Continuity of Government Commission in 2002. Like Presidents Carter, George H.W. Bush, and Clinton, Ford was an honorary co-chair of the Council for Excellence in Government, a group dedicated to excellence in government performance, which provides leadership training to top federal employees. Ford considered a run for the Republican nomination in 1980, foregoing numerous opportunities to serve on corporate boards to keep his options open for a rematch with Carter. Ford attacked Carter's conduct of the SALT II negotiations and foreign policy in the Middle East and Africa. Many have argued that Ford also wanted to exorcise his image as an "Accidental President" and to win a term in his own right. Ford also believed the more conservative Ronald Reagan would be unable to defeat Carter and would hand the incumbent a second term. Ford was encouraged by his former Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger as well as Jim Rhodes of Ohio and Bill Clements of Texas to make the race. On March 15, 1980, Ford announced that he would forgo a run for the Republican nomination, vowing to support the eventual nominee. After securing the Republican nomination in 1980, Ronald Reagan considered his former rival Ford as a potential vice-presidential running mate, but negotiations between the Reagan and Ford camps at the Republican National Convention were unsuccessful. Ford conditioned his acceptance on Reagan's agreement to an unprecedented "co-presidency",[155] giving Ford the power to control key executive branch appointments (such as Kissinger as Secretary of State and Alan Greenspan as Treasury Secretary). After rejecting these terms, Reagan offered the vice-presidential nomination instead to George H.W. Bush.[156] Ford did appear in a campaign commercial for the Reagan-Bush ticket, in which he declared that the country would be "better served by a Reagan presidency rather than a continuation of the weak and politically expedient policies of Jimmy Carter".[157] After his presidency, Ford joined the American Enterprise Institute as a distinguished fellow. He founded the annual AEI World Forum in 1982. Ford was awarded an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University[158] on March 23, 1988. After leaving the White House, Ford and his wife moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children.[159] In 1987, Ford testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee in favor of District of Columbia Circuit Court judge and former Solicitor General Robert Bork after Bork was nominated by President Reagan to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court.[160] Bork's nomination was rejected by a vote of 58-42.[161] By 1988, Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit, Nova Pharmaceutical, The Pullman Company, Tesoro Petroleum, and Tiger International, Inc.[162] Ford also became an honorary director of Citigroup, a position he held till his death.[163] In 1977, he established the Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy at Albion College in Albion, Michigan, to give undergraduates training in public policy. In April 1981, he opened the Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on the north campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan,[164] followed in September by the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids.[165][166] In 1999, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton.[167] In 2001, he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiencing over Watergate.[168] In retirement Ford also devoted much time to his love of golf, often playing both privately and in public events with comedian Bob Hope, a longtime friend. A Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to Ford in 1993.[169] In April 1991, Ford joined former presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and Jimmy Carter, in supporting the Brady Bill.[170] Three years later, he wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives, along with Carter and Reagan, in support of the assault weapons ban.[171] Two men in suits are flanked by two women in formal dresses, standing beside a large birthday cake with lit candles and flowers. The cake is decorated with the text "Happy 90th Birthday President Ford". Ford at his 90th birthday with Laura Bush, President George W. Bush, and Betty Ford in the White House State Dining Room in 2003 In October 2001, Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican party by stating that gay and lesbian couples "ought to be treated equally. Period." He became the highest ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians, stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti-gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters.[172] He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition, which The New York Times described as "a group of prominent Republicans, including former President Gerald R. Ford, dedicated to making sexual orientation a non-issue in the Republican Party".[173] On November 22, 2004, New York Republican Governor George Pataki named Ford and the other living former Presidents (Carter, George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center. In a pre-recorded embargoed interview with Bob Woodward of The Washington Post in July 2004, Ford stated that he disagreed "very strongly" with the Bush administration's choice of Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction as justification for its decision to invade Iraq, calling it a "big mistake" unrelated to the national security of the United States and indicating that he would not have gone to war had he been President. The details of the interview were not released until after Ford's death, as he requested.[174][175] Health problems[edit] Gerald Ford and Roy W. Hill, Rancho Mirage California Gerald Ford, Anne T. Hill, and Edgar L. McCoubrey, Rancho Mirage California As Ford approached his 90th year, he began to experience health problems associated with old age. He suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital.[176][177] In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage, California, for treatment of pneumonia.[178] On April 23, President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour. This was Ford's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos, video footage and voice recording. While vacationing in Vail, Colorado, he was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath.[179] On August 15 Ford was admitted to St. Mary's Hospital of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, for testing and evaluation. On August 21, it was reported that he had been fitted with a pacemaker. On August 25, he underwent an angioplasty procedure at the Mayo Clinic, according to a statement from an assistant to Ford. On August 28, Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home. On October 13, he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake, the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan, but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend. The previous day, Ford entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests; he was released on October 16.[180] By November 2006, he was confined to a bed in his study.[181] In reality, President Ford had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves.[182] Death and legacy[edit] Ford's casket lies in state at the United States Capitol as his widow, Betty, kneels in prayer Main article: Death and state funeral of Gerald Ford Ford died on December 26, 2006, at his home in Rancho Mirage, California, of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis. His age at the time of his death was 93 years and 165 days, making Ford the longest-lived U.S. President.[183][184] On December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. President to lie in state. The burial was preceded by a state funeral and memorial services held at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., on January 2, 2007. After the service, Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan.[185] Ford died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry Truman's death. He was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission.[186] His wife, Betty Ford, died on July 8, 2011.[187] Like her husband, she also died at age 93. The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection, replacing Zachariah Chandler. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011 in the Capitol Rotunda. On the proper right side is inscribed a quotation from a tribute by Thomas P. "Tip" O'Neill, Speaker of the House at the end of Ford's presidency: "God has been good to America, especially during difficult times. At the time of the Civil War, he gave us Abraham Lincoln. And at the time of Watergate, he gave us Gerald Ford—the right man at the right time who was able to put our nation back together again." On the proper left side are words from Ford's swearing-in address: "Our constitution works. Our great republic is a government of laws and not of men. Here the people rule." Longevity[edit] Ford was the longest-lived U.S. President, his lifespan being 45 days longer than Ronald Reagan's. He was the third-longest-lived Vice President, falling short only of John Nance Garner, 98, and Levi P. Morton, 96. Ford also had the third-longest post-presidency (29 years and 11 months) after Jimmy Carter (35 years, 4 months and counting) and Herbert Hoover (31 years and 7 months) On November 12, 2006, upon surpassing Ronald Reagan's lifespan, Ford released his last public statement: The length of one's days matters less than the love of one's family and friends. I thank God for the gift of every sunrise and, even more, for all the years He has blessed me with Betty and the children; with our extended family and the friends of a lifetime. That includes countless Americans who, in recent months, have remembered me in their prayers. Your kindness touches me deeply. May God bless you all and may God bless America.[188] Public image[edit] A man in a suit is standing next to an older man and woman in casual attire. The trio stands in front of a yellow house. President George W. Bush with Ford and his wife Betty on April 23, 2006; this is the last known public photo of Gerald Ford. Ford was the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice-president. The choice of Ford to fulfill Agnew's vacated role as vice president was based on his reputation for openness and honesty.[189] "In all the years I sat in the House, I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part-true and part-false. He never attempted to shade a statement, and I never heard him utter an unkind word," said Martha Griffiths.[190] The trust the American people had in him was severely and rapidly tarnished by his pardon of Nixon.[190] Nonetheless, many grant in hindsight that he had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought.[190] His subsequent loss to Carter in 1976 has come to be seen as an honorable sacrifice he made for the nation.[189] In spite of his athletic record and remarkable career accomplishments, Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy, likable and simple-minded Everyman. An incident in 1975 when he tripped while exiting the presidential jet in Austria, was famously and repeatedly parodied by Chevy Chase, cementing Ford's image as a klutz.[190][191][192] Pieces of Ford's common Everyman image have also been attributed to Ford's inevitable comparison to Nixon, as well as his perceived Midwestern stodginess and self-deprecation.[189] Ridicule often extended to supposed intellectual limitations, with Lyndon B. Johnson once joking, "He's a nice fellow but he spent too much time playing football without a helmet."[190] Honors[edit] Ford honored on U.S Postage, issue of 2007 Ford was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars in 1999.[169] And the following facilities were named after him: Gerald R. Ford Freeway (Nebraska) Gerald R. Ford Freeway (Michigan) Gerald Ford Memorial Highway, I-70 in Eagle County, Colorado Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan Gerald R. Ford Amphitheater in Vail, Colorado, in Ford Park, also named after him Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy, Albion College USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) Gerald R. Ford Elementary School, Indian Wells, California Gerald Ford Boys and Girls Club, La Quinta, California Gerald R. Ford Middle School, Grand Rapids, Michigan[193] Gerald Ford Drive, Coachella Valley, California (Cathedral City, Rancho Mirage, Palm Desert) President Ford Field Service Council, Boy Scouts of America The council where he was awarded the rank of Eagle Scout. Serves 25 counties in Western and Northern Michigan with its headquarters located in Grand Rapids, Michigan.[194] GERALD R. FORD, the 38th President of the United States, was born LESLIE LYNCH KING, JR., the son of Leslie Lynch King and Dorothy Ayer Gardner King, on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, NE. His parents separated 2 weeks after his birth, and his mother moved with him to Grand Rapids, MI, to live with her parents. On February 1, 1916, approximately 2 years after her divorce, Dorothy King married Gerald R. Ford, a Grand Rapids businessman. The Fords immediately began calling her son JERRY FORD, and in 1935 his name was officially changed to GERALD RUDOLPH FORD, JR. The future President grew up in a close-knit family that included three younger brothers, Thomas, Richard, and James. Mr. FORD attended South High School in Grand Rapids, where he excelled scholastically and athletically. He was named to the honor society and both the ‘‘All-City’’ and ‘‘All-State’’ football teams. To earn spending money he worked for the family paint business and at a local restaurant. He was also active in Scouting, and achieved the rank of Eagle Scout in November 1927— the only American President to do so. College Years From 1931 to 1935 Mr. FORD attended the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, where he majored in economics and political science, and graduated with a B.A. degree in June 1935. At a time of national economic hardship, he financed his education with part-time jobs, a small scholarship from his high school, and modest family assistance. Outstanding Athlete An extremely gifted athlete, Mr. FORD was a 3-year letterman and played on Michigan’s national championship football teams in 1932 and 1933. He was voted the Wolverine’s most valuable player in 1934. On January 1, 1935, he played in the viii Gerald R. Ford annual East-West College All-Star Game in San Francisco. That August, he played at Soldier Field against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago Tribune College All-Star Football Game, and his performance led to offers from the Detroit Lions and the Green Bay Packers. In tribute to one of its greatest student-athletes, Michigan subsequently retired Mr. FORD’s jersey number 48. In addition, he was named to Sports Illustrated’s Silver Anniversary All-America Football Team, received the National Football Foundation’s Gold Medal—its highest honor—and in 2006 was recognized by the NCAA as one of the 100 most influential student-athletes of the last century. In 2003, the NCAA created the NCAA President Gerald R. Ford Award, which is presented annually to an individual who has provided significant leadership as an advocate for intercollegiate athletics on a continuous basis over the course of their career. In 2005, the ‘‘Gerald R. Ford Legends of Center Award’’ was created to honor and promote President FORD’s athletic and public service ideals. The award is presented annually to an outstanding former collegiate or professional football center, who has also made significant contributions to his community through philanthropic or business endeavors. Yale Law School Mr. FORD chose the legal profession over a professional football career. To help pay for law school, he initially took a dual position as assistant varsity football coach and boxing coach at Yale University, where he coached future U.S. Senators Robert Taft, Jr. and William Proxmire. He enrolled in Yale Law School, while also continuing his coaching responsibilities. Among an extraordinary group of law school classmates were future Supreme Court Justices Potter Stewart and Byron White, Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, Sargent Shriver, Pennsylvania Governors William Scranton and Raymond Shafer, U.S. Senator Peter Dominick, and author William Lord. GERALD FORD earned his LL.B. degree from Yale in 1941, and graduated in the top 25 percent of his class. After returning to Michigan and passing the bar exam, Mr. FORD and a University of Michigan fraternity brother, Philip A. Buchen (later to serve as President FORD’s White House Counsel), established a law partnership in Grand Rapids. Mr. FORD also became active in a local group of reform-minded Republicans who called themselves the Home Front, when the United States entered World War II. Biography ix MR. FORD promptly joined the U.S. Naval Reserve, where he received a commission as an ensign in April 1942 and subsequently was appointed lieutenant commander. Following an orientation program at Annapolis, he became an instructor at a pre-flight school in Chapel Hill, NC. In spring 1943, he began service on the light aircraft carrier U.S.S. Monterey. Initially assigned as a gunnery division officer, then assistant navigator, he took part in major operations in the South Pacific, including the battles for Truk, Saipan, Guam, Formosa, Marianas, and the Philippines. During a vicious typhoon in the Philippine Sea in December 1944, he came within inches of being swept overboard. Severely damaged by the storm and a resulting fire, the ship had to be taken out of service. Lieutenant Commander FORD was honorably released from active duty in February 1946, having been awarded: • An Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with one silver star and four bronze stars, • A Philippine Liberation Ribbon with two bronze stars, • An American Campaign Medal, and • A World War II Victory Medal. Congress Returning home to Grand Rapids, Mr. FORD became a partner in the prestigious law firm of Butterfield, Keeney and Amberg. A self-proclaimed ‘‘compulsive joiner,’’ he was already well known throughout the community. He rejected his previous support for isolationism and adopted, instead, an outlook more in keeping with America’s new-found responsibilities on the global stage. In 1948, with the encouragement of his hometown political hero, Senator Arthur Vandenberg, and reinforced by his stepfather, who was county Republican chairman, Mr. FORD decided to challenge isolationist Congressman Bartel Jonkman in the Republican primary. Against all odds, the upstart GERALD FORD defeated Jonkman. In the subsequent general election that fall, he received 61 percent of the vote. At the age of 35, GERALD FORD was on his way to Washington for the 1st of 13 terms in the House of Representatives. A seat in Congress wasn’t the only thing he won in autumn 1948. On October 15, at the height of the fall campaign, Mr. FORD married Elizabeth Ann Bloomer Warren. For over 58 years their partnership flourished, enriched immeasurably by their four children, Michael, John (Jack), Steven, and Susan, their seven grandchildren and four great-grandchildren. x Gerald R. Ford GERALD FORD served in the House of Representatives from January 3, 1949 to December 6, 1973, being reelected 12 times, each time with more than 60 percent of the vote. The new Congressman quickly established a reputation for personal integrity, hard work, and the ability to deal effectively with both Republicans and Democrats—qualities that would define his entire political career. He once described himself as ‘‘a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy.’’ He became a member of the House Appropriations Committee in 1951 and rose to prominence on the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee, becoming its ranking minority member in 1961. In 1949, President Truman invited him to the White House for a personal tour to examine the dilapidated and dangerous conditions of the White House. Mr. FORD subsequently was instrumental in securing necessary congressional funding to rebuild and modernize the White House during the Truman Presidency. As his reputation as a legislator grew, GERALD FORD was called upon, among other assignments, to serve on the first NASA Oversight Committee and on the CIA and Intelligence Oversight Committees. He declined offers in the 1950s to run for both the Senate and the Michigan Governorship. His political ambition was specific—to become Speaker of the House. In 1960 he was mentioned as a possible Vice Presidential running mate for Richard Nixon. In 1963 a group of younger, more progressive House Republicans—the ‘‘Young Turks’’—rebelled against their party’s leadership, and Mr. FORD defeated Charles Hoeven of Iowa for chairman of the House Republican Conference, the number three leadership position in the party. In 1963 following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, President Johnson appointed GERALD FORD to the Warren Commission that investigated the crime. Mr. FORD was the last living member of the Warren Commission. In 1965 he co-authored with John R. Stiles ‘‘Portrait of the Assassin,’’ a book about the findings of the Warren Commission. The battle for the 1964 Republican Presidential nomination was drawn on sharp ideological lines between liberal Nelson Rockefeller and conservative Barry Goldwater. However, Mr. FORD had previously endorsed Michigan’s favorite son, Governor George Romney, and thus did not become embroiled in the resulting schism in the party. In the wake of Goldwater’s lopsided defeat at the hands of Lyndon Johnson, GERALD FORD was chosen by the Young Turks to challenge Charles Halleck for the Biography xi position of minority leader of the House. With the help of thenCongressmen Donald Rumsfeld and Bob Dole, Mr. FORD narrowly upset Halleck. He assumed his new position early in 1965 and held it for 8 years. As minority leader, his national stature rose quickly. As part of his efforts to rebuild the Republican Party, he typically made over 200 speeches a year across the country. Under Mr. FORD’s leadership, the House Republicans steadily gained members, but never a majority. In both the 1968 and 1972 elections, Mr. FORD was a supporter of Richard Nixon, who had been a friend for many years. In 1968, GERALD FORD was again mentioned as a possible Vice Presidential candidate. Not even the Nixon landslide of 1972 could give Republicans a majority in the House, thereby leaving Mr. FORD unable to reach his ultimate political goal—to be Speaker of the House of Representatives. Vice President When Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned in October 1973, President Nixon was authorized by the 25th Amendment to appoint, subject to congressional confirmation, a replacement. He needed someone who could work with Congress, survive close scrutiny of his political career and private life, and be confirmed quickly. Heeding an immediate and strong bipartisan consensus, he chose GERALD R. FORD. Following one of the most thorough background investigations in the history of the FBI, Mr. FORD was confirmed by a vote of 92 to 3 in the Senate and 387 to 35 in the House of Representatives and sworn in as Vice President on December 6, 1973. President The specter of the Watergate scandal, the break-in at Democratic headquarters during the 1972 campaign, and the ensuing coverup by Nixon administration officials hung over Mr. FORD’s 9-month tenure as Vice President. When it became apparent that evidence, public opinion, and the mood in Congress were all pointing toward impeachment, Richard Nixon became the only President to resign. On August 9, 1974, GERALD FORD assumed the Presidency amidst the gravest constitutional crisis since the Civil War. Few Presidents confronted so daunting a challenge. Not only did the new President face widespread public disillusionment in the wake of the Watergate scandals and the Vietnam war, he had to grapple with a devastating economic recession, xii Gerald R. Ford a burgeoning energy crisis, and mounting tensions around the globe. The President who never sought the Presidency resolved that his time in office, however long or short, would be a time of healing and energizing the country to move forward in a positive way. But it was President FORD’s confidence in his fellow citizens, and his devotion to our constitutional heritage, that helped him shoulder so effectively the burdens of the Oval Office. He immediately set about restoring confidence in the Presidency and healing the wounds of the Nation. In his first speech as President—Lincolnesque in tone and FORD-like in its personal modesty—he said: ‘‘My fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over. Our Constitution works; our great Republic is a government of laws and not of men. Here the people rule. But there is a higher Power, by whatever name we honor Him, who ordains not only righteousness but love, not only justice but mercy. As we bind up the internal wounds of Watergate, more painful and more poisonous than those of foreign wars, let us restore the golden rule to our political process, and let brotherly love purge our hearts of suspicion and of hate. With all the strength and all of the good sense I have gained from life, with all the confidence of my family, my friends, and my dedicated staff impart to me, and with the good will of countless Americans I have encountered in recent visits to 40 States, I now solemnly reaffirm my promise I made to you last December 6: to uphold the Constitution, to do what is right as God gives me to see the right, and to do the very best I can for America. God helping me, I will not let you down.’’ Pardon and Amnesty Shortly after becoming President, he announced amnesty terms for Vietnam-era draft evaders and pardoned his predecessor. Both acts were highly controversial at the time, but President FORD courageously put America’s best interests ahead of his own political popularity. The pardon of Richard Nixon was an act as personally courageous as it was politically detrimental. However, Mr. FORD strongly believed that protracted criminal proceedings would keep the country mired in Watergate and prevent the new administration and the American people from addressing other critical issues. Accordingly, he decided to grant Biography xiii the pardon prior to the filing of any formal criminal charges against the former President. Many in Washington and around the country were in an uproar, and GERALD FORD’s political honeymoon was over; his approval rating plummeted immediately with an estimated 60 percent of the American public disagreeing with the pardon. However, history has been much more generous regarding the pardon than were President FORD’s contemporaries. This historical re-examination of the pardon culminated in the May 2001 presentation of the Profile in Courage Award to President FORD by the John F. Kennedy Foundation. As Senator Edward Kennedy explained in presenting the Award: ‘‘At a time of national turmoil, America was fortunate that it was GERALD FORD who took the helm of the stormtossed ship of state. Unlike many of us at the time, President FORD recognized that the Nation had to move forward, and could not do so if there was a continuing effort to prosecute former President Nixon. So President FORD made a courageous decision—one that historians now say cost him his office—and he pardoned Richard Nixon. I was one of those who spoke out against his action then. But time has a way of clarifying past events, and now we see that President FORD was right. His courage and dedication to our country made it possible for us to begin the process of healing and put the tragedy of Watergate behind us.’’ PRESIDENT FORD’s Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, was equally direct in concluding that GERALD FORD ‘‘saved the country. In fact, he saved it in such a matter of fact way that he isn’t given credit for it.’’ New Administration Within the month President FORD nominated Nelson Rockefeller for Vice President. On December 19, 1974, Rockefeller was confirmed by Congress, and the country once more had a full complement of leaders. Mr. FORD confronted a divisive war in Southeast Asia, rising inflation at home, and a desperate need to restore the credibility of the Presidency. He also found himself dealing with a Congress increasingly assertive of its rights and powers. The FORD philosophy was best summarized by one of his favorite speech lines: ‘‘A government big enough to give us everything we want is a government big enough to take from us xiv Gerald R. Ford everything we have.’’ In domestic policy, President FORD pioneered economic deregulation, formulated tax and spending cuts, and decontrolled energy prices to stimulate production. Through such steps, he successfully contained both inflation and unemployment, while at the same time reducing the size and role of a Federal Government whose growth to many observers seemed inexorable. Thus, President FORD foreshadowed subsequent efforts by his successors to continue these policies to make government smaller, smarter and more supportive of private initiatives. He championed policies and legislation that brought about changes that today we take for granted, including individual retirement accounts (IRAs), automated teller machines (ATMs), Title IX regulations for women’s high school and college athletics, and the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. The heavily Democratic Congress often disagreed with President FORD, which led to numerous confrontations and his frequent use of the veto to restrain runaway government spending. Presidential historian Richard Norton Smith described the essence of GERALD FORD’s leadership and strength of character: ‘‘President FORD never confused compromise with surrender, or moderation with weakness. While he had adversaries, he never had an enemy.’’ Documentary producer Michael Grass summarized Mr. FORD’s effectiveness: ‘‘FORD practiced the political art of intelligent compromise with low-key Midwestern habits of fairness, civility, and truth-telling.’’ Columnist Mort Kondracke noted, ‘‘GERALD FORD represented the best in American politics . . . and [a style] that I’m afraid we are never going to see again.’’ Through tough negotiations and principled compromise and despite large Democratic majorities in Congress, landmark legislation was enacted to promote energy decontrol, implement sweeping tax cuts, deregulate the railroad and securities industries, and reform antitrust laws. Outstanding Cabinet and White House Staff One of Mr. FORD’s greatest strengths as a leader was his self-confidence and sense of security around others. According to columnist David Broder, President FORD ‘‘had one of the most competent staffs any of us have seen.’’ The advisors he appointed included a large number of extremely bright, capable people who would go on after the Ford administration to render further outstanding service to the American people. George H.W. Bush was Biography xv nomic advisor was Alan Greenspan; Donald Rumsfeld was his Secretary of Defense; his Attorney General was Edward Levi; his Secretary of Housing and Urban Development was Carla Hills; Brent Scowcroft was his National Security Advisor, William Simon was Treasury Secretary, and David Mathews was Secretary of HEW; his Under Secretary of Commerce was James Baker; his Secretary of Transportation was William Coleman; Frank Zarb was Administrator of the Federal Energy Administration; his OMB Director and Deputy Director were James Lynn and Paul O’Neill; and his White House staff included Robert Gates, James Cannon, John Marsh, William Seidman, Max Friedersdorf, Terrence O’Donnell, Robert Hartmann, Red Cavaney, David Gergen, Larry Speakes, and Roger Porter. The list of President FORD’s outstanding advisors who continued with distinguished public service careers goes on and on. Foreign Policy In foreign policy, Mr. FORD was resolute and visionary. He continued the policy of de´tente with the Soviet Union and developed an aggressive ‘‘shuttle diplomacy’’ in the Middle East. U.S.- Soviet relations were marked by ongoing arms negotiations, the Helsinki agreements on human rights principles and East European national boundaries, trade negotiations, and the symbolic Apollo-Soyuz joint manned space flight. One of President FORD’s boldest, and at the time most controversial, foreign policy initiatives occurred in southern Africa. For many years, U.S. policy was to support the Government of South Africa, which for decades had practiced apartheid. In 1976, President FORD decided that a change in U.S. policy was long overdue, despite political considerations that strongly suggested otherwise. Secretary of State Kissinger went to Zambia and announced President FORD’s decision that the longstanding U.S. support of South Africa, with its unconscionable policies of apartheid, was over. Former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, William Scranton, characterized this decision by President FORD as ‘‘one of the finest achievements’’ of twentieth century U.S. foreign policy. President FORD forcefully pushed for conclusion of the Helsinki agreements. His tireless efforts in negotiating those agreements, though politically controversial at the time, are now seen with the benefit of history as the first step toward democratization of Eastern Europe and the eventual collapse of the Soviet xvi Gerald R. Ford ship and personal participation in the Helsinki agreements as ‘‘a bold, brave, visionary act’’ and ‘‘one of President FORD’s greatest moments.’’ PRESIDENT FORD’s personal diplomacy also included trips to Japan—the first by an American President—and China; a 10- day European tour; and establishment of the annual international economic meeting of leaders (today known as the G– 8 summits). In addition, as America’s Bicentennial President, GERALD FORD received numerous foreign heads of state in the Nation’s Capital. Henry Kissinger noted the depth and breadth of President FORD’s achievements in foreign policy: ‘‘President FORD established what I believe was the closest relationship of any American President, in any period, with European leaders, and he did this by his special qualities—openness, intelligence, directness. And what is even more remarkable is that they have remained friends of his even after he left government. . . . Abroad his reputation was enormous.’’ With the fall of South Vietnam in 1975 as background, Congress and President FORD repeatedly clashed over Presidential powers, oversight of the CIA and covert operations, military aid appropriations, and the stationing of military personnel. On May 14, 1975, just days after Saigon fell, President FORD ordered U.S. forces to retake the SS Mayaguez, an American merchant ship seized by Cambodian gunboats in international waters 2 days earlier. The vessel was recovered, and all 39 crewmen were saved. Unfortunately, 41 brave Americans lost their lives in the preparation and execution of the rescue. The President himself did not escape the tumult of those times. On two separate trips to California in September 1975, GERALD FORD was the target of assassination attempts. The next year he fought off a strong challenge from Ronald Reagan to secure the Republican nomination for President, and a chance to have his leadership confirmed by the voters. He chose Senator Robert Dole of Kansas as his running mate. The FORD-Dole team succeeded in narrowing Democrat Jimmy Carter’s large lead in the polls, only to fall short in one of the closest Presidential elections in U.S. history. The Presidency of Gerald Ford The Presidency of GERALD FORD is defined by his personal integrity and unbending adherence to the truth. Ever the Eagle Scout—literally and metaphorically—in reflecting on his life, President FORD consistently referred to the straightforward Biography xvii standards of conduct taught by his parents: ‘‘Work hard, tell the truth, and come to dinner on time.’’ Openness was, and is, a core Ford family value. Equally honest and open was Betty Ford, who as First Lady developed a reputation for candor and lack of pretense. President FORD strongly supported his wife in her battles with breast cancer, alcoholism, and addiction to prescription medicines, and he warmly endorsed her frank talk about these and other issues. In 2003 Vice President Dick Cheney observed, ‘‘President FORD restored trust and confidence in the Presidency and the White House simply by the sheer force of his 
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