anti-war demonstrator South Florida 1972 Press Photo Policemen forcibly remove

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Seller: memorabilia111 ✉️ (808) 100%, Location: Ann Arbor, Michigan, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 176277810548 anti-war demonstrator South Florida 1972 Press Photo Policemen forcibly remove . AN 8X10 INCH PRESS PHOTO FROM 1972 DPICTING TAMPA ANTI WAR DEMONSTRATORS ATTEMPTING TO CONTROL ANM INTERSECTION NEAR THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLA. WERE ARRESTED TODAY DURING A BRIEF MELE OF ROCK THROWING AND MACE SPRAYING. APPROXIMATELY 25 YOUTHS WERE ARRESTED BEFORE ORDER WAS RESTORED.





With mass marches, windowsmashing sprees, silent vigils and traffic‐blocking sit‐ins, antiwar protesters by the thousands took to the streets yesterday in response to President Nixon's decision to mine North Vietnamese ports. The coast‐to‐coast outburst of demonstrations was the most turbulent since May, 1970, when protests over the United States invasion of Cambodia closed universities across the country. Most of the demonstrations yesterday began on college campuses, and many were peaceful. But some spilled over into city streets and turned into violent confrontations with the police. For the second consecutive night, students from Columbi University met with violence when a rally that began on the Morningside campus in New York ended in a clash with the police on the city's Upper East Side. At 10:30 P.M., about 300 orderly demonstrators found theii path blocked by a cordon of policeman across Madison Avenue at 72d Street. The protesters turned west on 73d Street and were set upon from both sides by club‐swinging members of the Tactical Patrol Force. At least five persons were clubbed to the ground, but their injuries did not appear to be serious. 18 Are Arrested Eighteen persons were eventually arrested—one for throwing a brick at bank and 13 for vaulting over turnstiles without paying at the Columbus Circle subway station. In Albuquerque, N. M., two students from the University of New Mexico were wounded by buckshot after the state police used tear gas to break up a crowd of 300 demonstrators blocking Interstate Highway 25. One of those wounded, Mrs. Carolyn Babb Coburn, a 22‐year‐old first‐year law student, was struck in the abdomen and chest and was listed in serious condition. The other was treated and released. The police, who carried shotguns, said there was no information “as to who fired the shot.” In Boulder, Colo., policemen fought 1,000 antiwar protesters with tear gas and clubs and arrested at least 70 persons last night in an effort to clear intersections and a highway bridge blocked with burning logs and automobiles. It was the second time yesterday that the demonstrators, many of them University of Colorado students, had blocked the thoroughfares, including the main Boulder‐Denver turn pike. At one point in the day, an angry driver who got out of his car with a shotgun was disarmed by the police. In Oxford, Ohio, 2,000 Miami University students blocked the city's main street befoie dispersing. At the University of Illinois in Champagne‐Urbana, an 11:30 P.M. to 6 A.M. curfew was declared after thousands of students roamed the business sec tion and campus, breaking windows in at least nine stores and looting at least six others. State troopers pushed the protesters bark to the campus. There were at least two arrests, and three policemen and a student received minor injuries. At Stanford University in Palo Alto, Salif., riot‐equipped county sheriff's deputies moved in to break up sit‐ins by 100 demonstrators who took over two campus buildings. The demonstrators were dispersed and street clashes between the police and students ensued. At least eight persons were arrested. Near the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, several hundred students threw eggs and rocks at the police, and several demonstrators were injured when the police broke up the demonstration. About 1,500 protesters marched from the University of California campus at Santa Barbara to the city airport and closed it down shortly before 5 P.M. by occupying the runway. All incoming and outgoing flights were canceled, but the demonstrators were dispersed by the police late last night. Violence erupted for the second consecutive night at the University of California in Berkeley, where thousands of protesters moved off campus to the downtown business district, smashing windows and setting fires in trash cans. The police used night sticks and “ricochet” guns that fire hard rubber pellets in an attempt to disperse, the crowd. By nightfall, after a mass rally of 3,500 people that led to pitched battles with the police and the occupation of “People's Park,” the scene of several disturbances in May, 1969,. the situation verged on anarchy. When the Berkeley City Council refused, by a vote of 5 to 4, to passian ordinance that would have declared the city not at war with North Vietnam and provided reparations from city treasury, about 3,000 protesters rushed the stage and overturned tables. The crowd then moved to the City Hall broke into the building and ignited huge bonfires outside. At the University of Wisconsin in Madison, where disturbances also occurred Monday night, the police used tear gas to break a street blockage yesterday afternoon. At night, a peaceful torchlight procession of 8,000 to 10,000 persons to the state Capitol broke up into roving bands that vandalized a computer science building, firebombed a Navy R.O.T.C. building and smashed windows in other campus buildings and stores. At least two persons were arrested. Iri Gainesville Fla., about 3,000 students, mainly from the University of Florida, battled for three hours against a force of nearly 200 policemen who used tear gas, riot, sticks and police dogs. Highway Reiiccupied Earlier yesterday, the police used high pressure hoses to clear about 1,000 students from U.S. Route 441, a four‐lane highway. The highway was reoccupied at 9 P.M., and at least 50 youths, were arrested. It was not known how many persons were injured, but at least 12 ambulance trips were made. Fifty‐one persons, most of them students from the State University of New York, were arrested in. Binghamton, N. Y.; after sitting down to block the entrance to the Federal. Building there. About 50 persons” were arrested in New Haven during a five‐hour demonstration that involved mostly Yale University students. A fire apparently set by arsonists destroyed an Army Reserve station in San Jose, Calif., causing damage estimated at $200,000. Many protests involved the blocking of streets. This occurred across the country, from Westport, Conn., where 31 suburban residents, were arrested for tying up traffic on the Boston Post Road, to Santa Barbara, Calif., where 1,500 students stopped motorists on U.S. Route 101 for more than an hour. A group of protesters abandoned their cars on Chicago's Eisenhower Expressway during the morning rush hour, causing a massive traffic jam. Nine persons were arrested. In New York, about 200 Vietnam Veterans Against the War attempted to storm the United Nations headquarters. Security guards locked the gates and clashed with a handful of protesters who fought their way inside the main building. In St. Louis, seven men who said they were Vietnam veterans went to the top of the 630‐foot Gateway Arch and “occupied” it for an, hour. In Philadelphia, 200 activists blocked the entrance to, the President's reelectionheadquarters. About 30 protesters were ejected from the visitors gallery at the House of Representatives in Washington after shouting antiwar slogans. Campus buildings were occupied by protesters at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, N. J., Syracuse University and the University of Rochester. The R.O.T.C. building at the University of Maiyland was struck by a Molotov cocktail, but damage was reported to be slight. In Davis, Calif., demonstraors sat on the railroad tracks and blocked the passage of five Southern Pacific trains for six hours, until they were dispersed by the police. Fifty‐seven persons were arrested. Two bridges In Amherst, Mass., were blocked by students for half an hour, and the New York Thruway was obstructed by students at the State University of New York in New Paltz for at least an hour. The rekindled antiwar pro tests on campuses throughout the country erupted into vio lence last night at Harvard, where students stormed the uni versity's Center for Interna tional Affairs. About ‘200 students broke into the three‐story building while another 300 milled about outside. The students smashed windows and doors, ransacked offices on the first two floors and used spray can paint to couple President Nixon's name with various obscenities on the walls. Several hours later, 2,000 Barnard and Columbia students issued four demands at a mass meeting at Barnard College in New York City and said they would strike if the demands were not met. At Princeton University, about 800 persons —most of them students—also voted to strike in protest against the increased bombing of North Vietnam. The Princeton strike, which was expected to take effect immediately, was voted at a meeting attended by about 1,200 persons. Dr. Robert W. Galleon, president of the uni versity, vowed to “oppose any one who obstructs any person on this campus from going to class.” Earlier yesterday, about 700 students held a peaceful anti war march on and near the Co lumbia campus. Throughout the country, it became apparent that the re newed bombing of North Viet nam by the United States had reawakened the antiwar spirit on many of the nation's cam puses for the first time since April, 1970, when American and South Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia. But only at Harvard was there violence. The disruption there broke out at 6:20 P.M., when 500 persons broke away from a group of 2,000 march ing from Boston Common to Harvard Square and attacked the center. They overturned desks, threw electric typewriters out the windows and ripped telephones from the walls and desks. Pa pers and books were scattered about and destroyed, and a fire was set but quickly extin guished by firemen. Curfew at Harvard Square Three persons were arrested but none was injured. Police men in riot gear sealed off Harvard Square, threatening to arrest anyone who did not leave the area, and a curfew was ordered for the neighbor hood, effective from 9 P.M. to 5 A.M. The students then spilled into the business district of Cambridge, Mass., where they broke windows in the I.B.M. Building, the post office and several stores. At the Barnard rally, the stu dents voted to strike the uni versity on Friday, when a na tional strike of students was called for, and then voted to continue to strike until four professors working on a De fense Department project were expelled from the campus, un til its International Affairs School ceased work for the De fense Department, the State De partment and the Central Intel ligence Agency, and until the university sold all its stock in companies doing business with South Africa and dismissed all its trustees who held shares in the companies. Pickets Planned Today The students also voted to picket Columbia buildings to day, but would not attempt to stop anyone from entering them. On some campuses, the at mosphere has become so charged that seven of the eight Ivy League university presi dents held a telephone confer ence yesterday to decide what to do about a call for a nation wide campus strike on Friday to protest the war. Another such conference will be held this morning, accord ing to Dr. William J. McGill, president of Columbia Univer sity. “The position I'm taking is that I do not believe it is proper to close a university down,” Dr. McGill said last evening. “I'm extremely sensitive to ward the rights of students who have paid for an education and want to get it.” But he added: “If a student on moral grounds feels that he or she cannot attend class on Friday, I don't think the student should be penalized. I am asking dem onstrators not to limit the rights of the faculty and other students to enter their classes, the buildings, the library. You do not correct something wrong in Vietnam by doing something wrong here.” Dr. McGill said that the only university president he had been unable to reach was Dr. Martin Meyerson, president of the University of Pennsylvania, but that the other Ivy League universities generally agreed with his stand. They are Yale, Harvard, Princeton, Dartmouth, Brown and Cornell. Strike Call Issued Meanwhile, from New York to California, slumbering stu dent activists were being aroused by the call for a cam pus strike on Friday. The call was made in Washington Mon day by Margery Tabankin, president of the National Stu dent Association. The quickest response came from the Ivy League campuses, where seven of its eight schools published an identical editorial yesterday in its campus news papers. The editorial said in part that, “in response to the pres ent crisis, the eight Ivy League newspapers join in calling for a one‐day moratorium on busi ness as usual. Friday. We urge our presidents to suspend uni versity activities on that day and we encourage all students and faculty to help shape fur ther actions at general campus meetings.” Harvard ran the same edi torial, but it went beyond the one‐day moratorium idea and joined 15 other university news papers around the country in calling for a nationwide student strike. At Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y., the University Senate, representing students, faculty and university em ployes, voted last night to sup port a series of actions, includ ing a nationwide student strike on Friday, in calling for the im mediate cessation of United States involvement in Vietnam. March at Columbia There was a lot of strike talk at Columbia, and about 700 stu dents took part in a peaceful march from the front of Low Library, past other students playing Frisbee and listening to a rock band, across Broadway at 116th Street (thereby block ing traffic for 15 minutes), through the Barnard College campus, past Columbia's phys ics building, on to the Interna tional Affairs Building and then west back to the Columbia campus. The marchers shouted “On Strike!” and “We're on the side of the Vietcong!” but most stu dents, sitting and talking in the sun, ignored the marchers. Elsewhere in the New York metropolitan area, the cam puses were relatively quiet. At Rutgers, the student newspaper came out against a one‐day moratorium. At Queens College and City College, most students seemed to be more interested in ro mance and Frisbee than in dem onstrating. But protests were erupting on campuses throughout the country. At the University of Wisconsin, Tom Higgins, presi dent of the Student Associa tion, predicted that the uni versity would see a series of “energy‐building actions” against the war during the next few days. Several hundred students among the thousands at the University of California at Berkeley voted to go on strike to protest the war. At Holy Cross in Worcester, Mass., 150 students picketed a building where Marine Corps and Navy interviews were scheduled. At the University of Maryland, several hundred stu dents broke some windows in the Reserve Officers Training Gorps building, and 10 persons were arrested. Students picketed at the University of Maine and the University of Florida, and more than 1,000 students held a pro test rally at the University of Illinois. An anti-war movement (also antiwar) is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. The term anti-war can also refer to pacifism, which is the opposition to all use of military force during conflicts, or to anti-war books, paintings, and other works of art. Many activists distinguish between anti-war movements and peace movements. Anti-war activists work through protest and other grassroots means to attempt to pressure a government (or governments) to put an end to a particular war or conflict. Anti-war rally of schoolchildren in Pilathara, India Contents 1 History of modern movements 1.1 American Revolutionary War 1.2 Antebellum Era United States 1.3 American Civil War 1.4 Second Boer War 1.5 World War I 1.6 Between the World Wars 1.7 World War II 1.8 Vietnam War 1.9 South African Border War 1.10 2001 Afghanistan War 1.11 Iraq War 1.12 Possible war against Iran 1.13 War in Donbass 1.14 Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen 2 Arts and culture 3 Anti-war intellectual and scientist-activists and their work 3.1 Philosophical possibility of avoiding war 3.2 Leading scientists and intellectuals 3.3 Manifestos and statements by scientist and intellectual activists 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History of modern movements American Revolutionary War Substantial opposition to British war intervention in America led the British House of Commons on 27 February 1782 to vote against further war in America, paving the way for the Second Rockingham ministry and the Peace of Paris. Antebellum Era United States Substantial anti-war sentiment developed in the United States during the period roughly falling between the end of the War of 1812 and the commencement of the Civil War, or what is called the antebellum era (A similar movement developed in England during the same period). The movement reflected both strict pacifist and more moderate non-interventionist positions. Many prominent intellectuals of the time, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau (see Civil Disobedience) and William Ellery Channing contributed literary works against war. Other names associated with the movement include William Ladd, Noah Worcester, Thomas Cogswell Upham and Asa Mahan. Many peace societies were formed throughout the United States, the most prominent of which being the American Peace Society. Numerous periodicals (e.g., The Advocate of Peace) and books were also produced. The Book of Peace, an anthology produced by the American Peace Society in 1845, must surely rank as one of the most remarkable works of anti-war literature ever produced.[1] A recurring theme in this movement was the call for the establishment of an international court which would adjudicate disputes between nations. Another distinct feature of antebellum anti-war literature was the emphasis on how war contributed to a moral decline and brutalization of society in general. American Civil War Rioters attack federal troops. Further information: Opposition to the American Civil War A key event in the early history of the modern anti-war stance in literature and society was the American Civil War, where it culminated in the candidacy of George McClellan for President of the United States as a "Peace Democrat" against incumbent President Abraham Lincoln. The outlines of the anti-war stance are seen: the argument that the costs of maintaining the present conflict are not worth the gains which can be made, the appeal to end the horrors of war, and the argument that war is being waged for the profit of particular interests. During the war, the New York Draft Riots were started as violent protests against Abraham Lincoln's Enrollment Act of Conscription plan to draft men to fight in the war. The outrage over conscription was augmented by the ability to "buy" your way out; the amount of which could only be afforded by the wealthy. After the war, The Red Badge of Courage described the chaos and sense of death which resulted from the changing style of combat: away from the set engagement, and towards two armies engaging in continuous battle over a wide area. Second Boer War Further information: Opposition to the Second Boer War William Thomas Stead formed an organization against the Second Boer War: the Stop the War Committee. World War I The Deserter by Boardman Robinson, The Masses, 1916. Further information: Opposition to World War I In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army Lord Kitchener was to review the cadets, but the immenence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present) that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust-probably not more than one-quarter of us – learned how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it. [2] Having voiced these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorrien's career, or prevent him from carrying out his duty in the First World War to the best of his abilities. With the increasing mechanization of war, opposition to its horrors grew, particularly in the wake of the First World War. European avant-garde cultural movements such as Dada were explicitly anti-war. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 gave the American authorities the right to close newspapers and jailed individuals for having anti-war views. On June 16, 1918, Eugene V. Debs made an anti-war speech and was arrested under the Espionage Act of 1917. He was convicted, sentenced to serve ten years in prison, but President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence on December 25, 1921. Between the World Wars In 1924 Ernst Friedrich published Krieg dem Krieg! (War Against War!): an album of photographs drawn from German military and medical archives from the first world war. In Regarding the pain of others Sontag describes the book as 'photography as shock therapy' that was designed to 'horrify and demoralize'. It was in the 1930s that the Western anti-war movement took shape, to which the political and organizational roots of most of the existing movement can be traced. Characteristics of the anti-war movement included opposition to the corporate interests perceived as benefiting from war, to the status quo which was trading the lives of the young for the comforts of those who are older, the concept that those who were drafted were from poor families and would be fighting a war in place of privileged individuals who were able to avoid the draft and military service, and to the lack of input in decision making that those who would die in the conflict would have in deciding to engage in it. In 1933, the Oxford Union resolved in its Oxford Pledge, "That this House will in no circumstances fight for its King and Country." Many war veterans, including US General Smedley Butler, spoke out against wars and war profiteering on their return to civilian life. Veterans were still extremely cynical about the motivations for entering World War I, but many were willing to fight later in the Spanish Civil War, indicating that pacifism was not always the motivation. These trends were depicted in novels such as All Quiet on the Western Front, For Whom the Bell Tolls and Johnny Got His Gun. World War II Protest at the White House by the American Peace Mobilization. Further information: Opposition to World War II Opposition to World War II was most vocal during its early period, and stronger still before it started while appeasement and isolationism were considered viable diplomatic options. Communist-led organizations, including veterans of the Spanish Civil War,[3] opposed the war during the period of the Hitler-Stalin pact but then turned into hawks after Germany invaded the Soviet Union. The war seemed, for a time, to set anti-war movements at a distinct social disadvantage; very few, mostly ardent pacifists, continued to argue against the war and its results at the time. However, the Cold War followed with the post-war realignment, and the opposition resumed. The grim realities of modern combat, and the nature of mechanized society ensured that the anti-war viewpoint found presentation in Catch-22, Slaughterhouse-Five and The Tin Drum. This sentiment grew in strength as the Cold War seemed to present the situation of an unending series of conflicts, which were fought at terrible cost to the younger generations. Vietnam War Further information: Opposition to the Vietnam War U.S. Marshals arresting a Vietnam War protester in Washington, D.C., 1967 Organized opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began slowly and in small numbers in 1964 on various college campuses in the United States and quickly as the war grew deadlier. In 1967 a coalition of antiwar activists formed the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam which organized several large anti-war demonstrations between the late-1960s and 1972. Counter-cultural songs, organizations, plays and other literary works encouraged a spirit of nonconformism, peace, and anti-establishmentarianism. This anti-war sentiment developed during a time of unprecedented student activism and right on the heels of the Civil Rights Movement, and was reinforced in numbers by the demographically significant baby boomers. It quickly grew to include a wide and varied cross-section of Americans from all walks of life. The anti-Vietnam war movement is often considered to have been a major factor affecting America's involvement in the war itself. Many Vietnam veterans, including the former Secretary of State and former U.S. Senator John Kerry and disabled veteran Ron Kovic, spoke out against the Vietnam War on their return to the United States. South African Border War Main article: South African resistance to war Opposition to the South African Border War spread to a general resistance to the apartheid military. Organizations such as the End Conscription Campaign and Committee on South African War Resisters, were set up. Many opposed the war at this time. 2001 Afghanistan War Demonstration in Québec City against the Canadian military involvement in Afghanistan, 22 June 2007 Further information: Opposition to the 2001 Afghanistan War There was initially little opposition to the 2001 Afghanistan War in the United States and the United Kingdom, which was seen as a response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and was supported by a majority of the American public. Most vocal opposition came from pacifist groups and groups promoting a leftist political agenda; in the United States, the group A.N.S.W.E.R. was one of the most visible organizers of anti-war protests, although that group faced considerable controversy over allegations it was a front for the extremist Stalinist Workers World Party. Over time, opposition to the war in Afghanistan has grown more widespread, partly as a result of weariness with the length of the conflict, and partly as a result of a conflating of the conflict with the unpopular war in Iraq.[4] Iraq War Further information: Opposition to the Iraq War Anti-war rally in Washington, D.C., March 15, 2003 Thomas on the White House Peace Vigil The anti-war position gained renewed support and attention in the buildup to the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the U.S. and its allies. Millions of people staged mass protests across the world in the immediate prelude to the invasion, and demonstrations and other forms of anti-war activism have continued throughout the occupation. The primary opposition within the U.S. to the continued occupation of Iraq has come from the grassroots. Opposition to the conflict, how it had been fought, and complications during the aftermath period divided public sentiment in the U.S., resulting in majority public opinion turning against the war for the first time in the spring of 2004, a turn which has held since.[5] Many American writers against the war, like Naomi Wolf, were labeled conspiratorial due to their opposition, with others choosing to post their anti-war writings anonymously, such as the anonymous conspiracy author Sorcha Faal. The financial website Zero Hedge offered its anti-war writers the protection of the anonymous pseudonym Tyler Durden for those exposing war profiteering. The American country music band Dixie Chicks opposition to the war caused many radio stations to stop playing their records, but who were supported in their anti-war stance by the equally anti-war country music legend Merle Haggard, who in the summer of 2003 released a song critical of US media coverage of the Iraq War. Anti-war groups protested during both the Democratic National Convention and 2008 Republican National Convention protests held in St. Paul, Minnesota in September 2008. Possible war against Iran Further information: Opposition to war against Iran Organised opposition to a possible future military attack against Iran by the United States is known to have started during 2005–2006. Beginning in early 2005, journalists, activists and academics such as Seymour Hersh,[6][7] Scott Ritter,[8] Joseph Cirincione[9] and Jorge E. Hirsch[10] began publishing claims that United States' concerns over the alleged threat posed by the possibility that Iran may have a nuclear weapons program might lead the US government to take military action against that country in the future. These reports, and the concurrent escalation of tensions between Iran and some Western governments, prompted the formation of grassroots organisations, including Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran in the US and the United Kingdom, to advocate against potential military strikes on Iran. Additionally, several individuals, grassroots organisations and international governmental organisations, including the Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Mohamed ElBaradei,[11] a former United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq, Scott Ritter,[8] Nobel Prize winners including Shirin Ebadi, Mairead Corrigan-Maguire and Betty Williams, Harold Pinter and Jody Williams,[12] Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament,[12] Code Pink,[13] the Non-Aligned Movement[14] of 118 states, and the Arab League, have publicly stated their opposition to a would-be attack on Iran. War in Donbass Main article: 2014 anti-war protests in Russia Anti-war/Putin demonstration in Moscow, 21 September 2014 Anti-war/Putin demonstrations took place in Moscow "opposing the War in Donbass", i.e., in the Eastern Ukraine.[citation needed] Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen Main article: Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen Protest against U.S. involvement in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, New York City, 2017 Arts and culture See also: List of books with anti-war themes English poet Robert Southey's 1796 poem After Blenheim is an early modern example of anti-war literature — it was written generations after the Battle of Blenheim, but at a time when England was again at war with France. World War I produced a generation of poets and writers influenced by their experiences in the war. The work of poets including Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon exposed the contrast between the realities of life in the trenches and how the war was seen by the British public at the time, as well as the earlier patriotic verse penned by Rupert Brooke. German writer Erich Maria Remarque penned All Quiet on the Western Front, which, having been adapted for several mediums, has become of the most often cited pieces of anti-war media. Pablo Picasso's 1937 painting Guernica, on the other hand, used abstraction rather than realism to generate an emotional response to the loss of life from the fascist bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. American author Kurt Vonnegut used science fiction themes in his 1969 novel Slaughterhouse-Five, depicting the bombing of Dresden in World War II (which Vonnegut witnessed). The second half of the 20th century also witnessed a strong anti-war presence in other art forms, including anti-war music such as "Eve of Destruction" and One Tin Soldier and films such as M*A*S*H and Die Brücke, opposing the Cold War in general, or specific conflicts such as the Vietnam War. The current American war in Iraq has also generated significant artistic anti-war works, including filmmaker Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 9/11, which holds the box-office record for documentary films, and Canadian musician Neil Young's 2006 album Living with War. Anti-war intellectual and scientist-activists and their work Various people have discussed the philosophical question of whether war is inevitable, and how it can be avoided; in other words, what are the necessities of peace. Various intellectuals and others have discussed it from an intellectual and philosophical point of view, not only in public, but participating or leading anti-war campaigns despite its differing from their main areas of expertise, leaving their professional comfort zones to warn against or fight against wars.[citation needed] Philosophical possibility of avoiding war Immanuel Kant: In (1795) "Perpetual Peace"[15][16] ("Zum ewigen Frieden").[17] Immanuel Kant booklet on "Perpetual Peace" in 1795. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that perpetual peace could be secured through universal democracy and international cooperation. Leading scientists and intellectuals Here is a list of notable anti-war scientists and intellectuals. Linus Pauling was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his peace activism (his second nobel prize). circulated multiple petitions among scientists. Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein had correspondences on violence, peace, and human nature.[citation needed] Bertrand Russell mostly was a prominent anti-war activist; he championed anti-imperialism.[18][19] Occasionally, he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the atomic monopoly is gone, and "welcomed with enthusiasm" world government.[20] He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I.[21] Later, he campaigned against Adolf Hitler, then criticised Stalinist totalitarianism, attacked the involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War, and was an outspoken proponent of nuclear disarmament.[22] In 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought".[23][24] Manifestos and statements by scientist and intellectual activists Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955.[25] The Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955 was signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.[26] The Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement of 1974/1976.[27] was signed by Linus Pauling and others. Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the Straits of Florida and Cuba; it is the only state that borders both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Spanning 65,758 square miles (170,310 km2), Florida ranks 22nd in area among the 50 states, and with a population of over 21 million, is the third-most populous. The state capital is Tallahassee and the most populous city is Jacksonville. The Miami metropolitan area, with a population of almost 6.2 million, is the most populous urban area in Florida and the ninth-most populous in the United States; other urban conurbations with over one million people are Tampa Bay, Orlando, and Jacksonville. Various Native American groups have inhabited Florida for at least 14,000 years. In 1513, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León became the first known European to make landfall, calling the region La Florida ([la floˈɾiða] for its lush greenery and the Easter season (Pascua Florida in Spanish). Florida subsequently became the first area in the continental U.S. to be permanently settled by Europeans, with the Spanish colony of St. Augustine, founded in 1565, being the oldest continuously inhabited city. Florida was repeatedly contested by Spain and Great Britain, before being ceded to the U.S. in 1819; it was admitted as the 27th state on March 3, 1845. Florida was the principal location of the Seminole Wars (1816–1858), the longest and most extensive of the Indian Wars in U.S. history. The state seceded from the Union on January 10, 1861, becoming one of the seven original Confederate States. After the Civil War, Florida was restored to the Union on June 25, 1868. Since the mid-20th century, Florida has experienced rapid demographic and economic growth. Its economy, with a gross state product (GSP) of $1.0 trillion, is the fourth-largest of any U.S. state and the 16th-largest in the world; the main sectors are tourism, hospitality, agriculture, real estate, and transportation. Florida is world-renowned for its beach resorts, amusement parks, warm and sunny climate, and nautical recreation; attractions such as Walt Disney World, the Kennedy Space Center, and Miami Beach draw tens of millions of visitors annually. Florida is a popular destination for retirees, seasonal vacationers, and both domestic and international migrants; it hosts nine out of the ten fastest-growing communities in the U.S. The state's close proximity to the ocean has shaped its culture, identity, and daily life; its colonial history and successive waves of migration are reflected in African, European, Indigenous, Latino, and Asian influences. Florida has attracted or inspired writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes, particularly in golf, tennis, auto racing, and water sports. Florida is also heavily noted for being a battleground state in American presidential elections, notably those in 2000, 2016, and 2020. About two-thirds of Florida occupies a peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. It has the longest coastline in the contiguous United States, spanning approximately 1,350 miles (2,170 km), not including its many barrier islands. Florida has 4,510 islands that are ten acres (4 ha) or larger in area, the second highest number after Alaska. Much of the state is at or near sea level, and is characterized by sedimentary soil. Florida is the flattest state in the country, with the lowest high point of any U.S. state, at just 345 feet (105 meters). Lake Okeechobee is its largest freshwater lake, and the second-largest located entirely within the contiguous 48 states. Several beaches in Florida have turquoise and emerald-colored coastal waters. Florida's climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south. It is the only state besides Hawaii to have a tropical climate, and is the only continental state with both a tropical climate (at the lower tip of the peninsula) and a coral reef. Consequently, Florida has several unique ecosystems, most notably Everglades National Park, the largest tropical wilderness in the U.S. and among the largest in the Americas. Unique wildlife include the American alligator, American crocodile, American flamingo, Roseate spoonbill, Florida panther, bottlenose dolphin, and manatee. The Florida Reef is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States, and the third-largest coral barrier reef system in the world (after the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef). Contents 1 History 1.1 European arrival 1.2 Statehood and Indian removal 1.3 Civil War and Reconstruction 1.4 20th and 21st century 2 Geography 2.1 Climate 2.2 Fauna 2.3 Flora 2.4 Florida Reef 2.5 Environmental issues 2.6 Geology 2.7 Regions 2.8 Cities and towns 3 Demographics 3.1 Population 3.2 Languages 3.3 Religion 4 Governance 4.1 Elections history 4.1.1 2000–present 4.2 Statutes 4.3 Taxation 5 Economy 6 Health 7 Architecture 8 Education 8.1 Primary and secondary education 8.2 Higher education 9 Transportation 9.1 Highways 9.2 Airports 9.3 Intercity rail 9.4 Public transit 10 Sports 11 State symbols 12 Sister states 13 See also 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 External links History Main article: History of Florida People, known as Paleo-Indians, entered Florida at least 14,000 years ago.[14] By the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major groups of people living in Florida included the Apalachee of the Florida Panhandle, the Timucua of northern and central Florida, the Ais of the central Atlantic coast, and the Calusa of southwest Florida.[citation needed] European arrival Main articles: New Spain, Spanish Florida, French and Indian War, Treaty of Paris (1763), West Florida, East Florida, Indian Reserve (1763), American Revolutionary War, Gulf Coast campaign, Treaty of Paris (1783), and Spanish West Florida Map of Florida, likely based on the expeditions of Hernando de Soto (1539–1543) Florida was the first region of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans. The earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2, 1513. He named it La Florida in recognition of the verdant landscape and because it was the Easter season, which the Spaniards called Pascua Florida (Festival of Flowers). The following day they came ashore to seek information and take possession of this new land.[15][16] The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is mythical and appeared only long after his death.[17] In May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described a thick wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet (21 m), with intertwined and elevated roots making landing difficult.[18] The Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Castilian language, and more to Florida.[19] Spain established several settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success. In 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was mostly abandoned by 1561. In 1564–65 there was a French settlement at Fort Caroline, in present Duval County, which was destroyed by the Spanish.[20] In 1565, the settlement of St. Augustine (San Agustín) was established under the leadership of admiral and governor Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, creating what would become one of the oldest, continuously occupied European settlements in the continental U.S. and establishing the first generation of Floridanos and the Government of Florida.[21] Spain maintained strategic control over the region by converting the local tribes to Christianity. The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville, and Miguel Rodríguez, a white Segovian, occurred in 1565 in St. Augustine. It is the first recorded Christian marriage in the continental United States.[22] Some Spanish married or had unions with Pensacola, Creek or African women, both slave and free, and their descendants created a mixed-race population of mestizos and mulattos. The Spanish encouraged slaves from the Thirteen Colonies to come to Florida as a refuge, promising freedom in exchange for conversion to Catholicism. King Charles II of Spain issued a royal proclamation freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted conversion and baptism. Most went to the area around St. Augustine, but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola. St. Augustine had mustered an all-black militia unit defending Spanish Florida as early as 1683.[23] The Castillo de San Marcos. Originally white with red corners, its design reflects the colors and shapes of the Cross of Burgundy and the subsequent Flag of Florida. The geographical area of Spanish claims in La Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north and French claims to the west. English colonists and buccaneers launched several attacks on St. Augustine in the 17th and 18th centuries, razing the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Spain built the Castillo de San Marcos in 1672 and Fort Matanzas in 1742 to defend Florida's capital city from attacks, and to maintain its strategic position in the defense of the Captaincy General of Cuba and the Spanish West Indies. In 1738, the Spanish governor of Florida Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St. Augustine, a fortified town for escaped slaves to whom Montiano granted citizenship and freedom in return for their service in the Florida militia, and which became the first free black settlement legally sanctioned in North America.[24][25] In 1763, Spain traded Florida to the Kingdom of Great Britain for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years' War. The trade was done as part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris which ended the Seven Years' War. Spain was granted Louisiana from France due to their loss of Florida. A large portion of the Florida population left, taking along large portions of the remaining indigenous population with them to Cuba.[26] The British soon constructed the King's Road connecting St. Augustine to Georgia. The road crossed the St. Johns River at a narrow point called Wacca Pilatka, or the British name "Cow Ford", reflecting the fact that cattle were brought across the river there.[27][28][29] East Florida and West Florida in British period (1763–1783) The British divided and consolidated the Florida provinces (Las Floridas) into East Florida and West Florida, a division the Spanish government kept after the brief British period.[30] The British government gave land grants to officers and soldiers who had fought in the French and Indian War in order to encourage settlement. In order to induce settlers to move to Florida, reports of its natural wealth were published in England. A number of British settlers who were described as being "energetic and of good character" moved to Florida, mostly coming from South Carolina, Georgia and England. There was also a group of settlers who came from the colony of Bermuda. This was the first permanent English-speaking population in what is now Duval County, Baker County, St. Johns County and Nassau County. The British constructed good public roads and introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo and fruits, as well as the export of lumber.[31][32] The British governors were directed to call general assemblies as soon as possible in order to make laws for the Floridas, and in the meantime they were, with the advice of councils, to establish courts. This was the first introduction of the English-derived legal system which Florida still has today, including trial by jury, habeas corpus and county-based government.[31][32] Neither East Florida nor West Florida sent any representatives to Philadelphia to draft the Declaration of Independence. Florida remained a Loyalist stronghold for the duration of the American Revolution.[33] Spain regained both East and West Florida after Britain's defeat in the Revolutionary War and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles in 1783, and continued the provincial divisions until 1821.[34] Statehood and Indian removal See also: Republic of East Florida, Seminole Wars, Adams–Onís Treaty, Florida Territory, Admission to the Union, and List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union A Cracker cowboy, 19th century Defense of Florida's northern border with the United States was minor during the second Spanish period. The region became a haven for escaped slaves and a base for Indian attacks against U.S. territories, and the U.S. pressed Spain for reform. Americans of English and Scots-Irish descent began moving into northern Florida from the backwoods of Georgia and South Carolina. Though technically not allowed by the Spanish authorities and the Floridan government, they were never able to effectively police the border region and the backwoods settlers from the United States would continue to immigrate into Florida unchecked. These migrants, mixing with the already present British settlers who had remained in Florida since the British period, would be the progenitors of the population known as Florida Crackers.[35] These American settlers established a permanent foothold in the area and ignored Spanish authorities. The British settlers who had remained also resented Spanish rule, leading to a rebellion in 1810 and the establishment for ninety days of the so-called Free and Independent Republic of West Florida on September 23. After meetings beginning in June, rebels overcame the garrison at Baton Rouge (now in Louisiana), and unfurled the flag of the new republic: a single white star on a blue field. This flag would later become known as the "Bonnie Blue Flag". In 1810, parts of West Florida were annexed by the proclamation of President James Madison, who claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase. These parts were incorporated into the newly formed Territory of Orleans. The U.S. annexed the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Spain continued to dispute the area, though the United States gradually increased the area it occupied. In 1812, a group of settlers from Georgia, with de facto support from the U.S. federal government, attempted to overthrow the Floridan government in the province of East Florida. The settlers hoped to convince Floridians to join their cause and proclaim independence from Spain, but the settlers lost their tenuous support from the federal government and abandoned their cause by 1813.[36] Traditionally, historians argued that Seminoles based in East Florida began raiding Georgia settlements, and offering havens for runaway slaves. The United States Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including the 1817–1818 campaign against the Seminole Indians by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War. The United States now effectively controlled East Florida. Control was necessary according to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams because Florida had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them."[37] More recent historians describe that after U.S. independence, settlers in Georgia increased pressure on Seminole lands, and skirmishes near the border led to the First Seminole War (1816–19). The United States purchased Florida from Spain by the Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) and took possession in 1821. The Seminole were moved out of their rich farmland in northern Florida and confined to a large reservation in the interior of the Florida peninsula by the Treaty of Moultrie Creek (1823). Passage of the Indian Removal Act (1830) led to the Treaty of Payne's Landing (1832), which called for the relocation of all Seminole to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).[38] Some resisted, leading to the Second Seminole War, the bloodiest war against Native Americans in United States history. By 1842, however, most Seminoles and Black Seminoles, facing starvation, were removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida after the Third Seminole War (1855–1858), having taken refuge in the Everglades, from where they never surrendered to the US. They fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence.[39] Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or troops due to the devastation caused by the Peninsular War. Madrid, therefore, decided to cede the territory to the United States through the Adams–Onís Treaty, which took effect in 1821.[40] President James Monroe was authorized on March 3, 1821, to take possession of East Florida and West Florida for the United States and provide for initial governance.[41] Andrew Jackson, on behalf of the U.S. federal government, served as a military commissioner with the powers of governor of the newly acquired territory for a brief period.[42] On March 30, 1822, the U.S. Congress merged East Florida and part of West Florida into the Florida Territory.[43] A U.S. Marine boat searching the Everglades for Seminoles (hiding in foreground) during the Second Seminole War By the early 1800s, Indian removal was a significant issue throughout the southeastern U.S. and also in Florida. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act and as settlement increased, pressure grew on the U.S. government to remove the Indians from Florida. Seminoles offered sanctuary to blacks, and these became known as the Black Seminoles, and clashes between whites and Indians grew with the influx of new settlers. In 1832, the Treaty of Payne's Landing promised to the Seminoles lands west of the Mississippi River if they agreed to leave Florida. Many Seminole left at this time. Some Seminoles remained, and the U.S. Army arrived in Florida, leading to the Second Seminole War (1835–1842). Following the war, approximately 3,000 Seminole and 800 Black Seminole were removed to Indian Territory. A few hundred Seminole remained in Florida in the Everglades. The Historic Call-Collins House, the Grove, built by slaves in the 1840s, is an antebellum plantation house in Tallahassee. 1840 advertisement in the Pensacola Gazette offering a $10 ($330 in 2022) reward for the return of a fugitive slave On March 3, 1845, only one day before the end of President John Tyler's term in office, Florida became the 27th state,[44] admitted as a slave state and no longer a sanctuary for runaway slaves. Initially its population grew slowly.[45] As European settlers continued to encroach on Seminole lands, the United States intervened to move the remaining Seminoles to the West. The Third Seminole War (1855–58) resulted in the forced removal of most of the remaining Seminoles, although hundreds of Seminole Indians remained in the Everglades.[46] The first settlements and towns in South Florida were founded much later than those in the northern part of the state. The first permanent European settlers arrived in the early 19th century. People came from the Bahamas to South Florida and the Keys to hunt for treasure from the ships that ran aground on the treacherous Great Florida Reef. Some accepted Spanish land offers along the Miami River. At about the same time, the Seminole Indians arrived, along with a group of runaway slaves. The area was affected by the Second Seminole War, during which Major William S. Harney led several raids against the Indians. Most non-Indian residents were soldiers stationed at Fort Dallas. It was the most devastating Indian war in American history, causing almost a total loss of population in Miami. After the Second Seminole War ended in 1842, William English re-established a plantation started by his uncle on the Miami River. He charted the "Village of Miami" on the south bank of the Miami River and sold several plots of land. In 1844, Miami became the county seat, and six years later a census reported there were ninety-six residents in the area.[47] The Third Seminole War was not as destructive as the second, but it slowed the settlement of southeast Florida. At the end of the war, a few of the soldiers stayed. Civil War and Reconstruction Main article: Florida in the American Civil War See also: American Civil War and Reconstruction era The Battle of Olustee during the American Civil War, 1864 American settlers began to establish cotton plantations in north Florida, which required numerous laborers, which they supplied by buying slaves in the domestic market. By 1860, Florida had only 140,424 people, of whom 44% were enslaved. There were fewer than 1,000 free African Americans before the American Civil War.[48] On January 10, 1861, nearly all delegates in the Florida Legislature approved an ordinance of secession,[49][50] declaring Florida to be "a sovereign and independent nation"—an apparent reassertion to the preamble in Florida's Constitution of 1838, in which Florida agreed with Congress to be a "Free and Independent State." The ordinance declared Florida's secession from the Union, allowing it to become one of the founding members of the Confederate States. The Confederacy received little military help from Florida; the 15,000 troops it offered were generally sent elsewhere. Instead of troops and manufactured goods, Florida did provide salt and, more importantly, beef to feed the Confederate armies. This was particularly important after 1864, when the Confederacy lost control of the Mississippi River, thereby losing access to Texas beef.[51][52] The largest engagements in the state were the Battle of Olustee, on February 20, 1864, and the Battle of Natural Bridge, on March 6, 1865. Both were Confederate victories.[53] The war ended in 1865. Following the American Civil War, Florida's congressional representation was restored on June 25, 1868, albeit forcefully after Reconstruction and the installation of unelected government officials under the final authority of federal military commanders. After the Reconstruction period ended in 1876, white Democrats regained power in the state legislature. In 1885, they created a new constitution, followed by statutes through 1889 that disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites.[54] In the pre-automobile era, railroads played a key role in the state's development, particularly in coastal areas. In 1883, the Pensacola and Atlantic Railroad connected Pensacola and the rest of the Panhandle to the rest of the state. In 1884 the South Florida Railroad (later absorbed by Atlantic Coast Line Railroad) opened full service to Tampa. In 1894 the Florida East Coast Railway reached West Palm Beach; in 1896 it reached Biscayne Bay near Miami. Numerous other railroads were built all over the interior of the state. 20th and 21st century People at the newly opened Don Cesar Hotel in St. Pete Beach, Florida in 1928 Historically, Florida's economy has been based primarily upon agricultural products such as citrus fruits, strawberries, nuts, sugarcane and cattle.[55] The boll weevil devastated cotton crops during the early 20th century. Until the mid-20th century, Florida was the least populous state in the southern United States. In 1900, its population was only 528,542, of whom nearly 44% were African American, the same proportion as before the Civil War.[56] Forty thousand blacks, roughly one-fifth of their 1900 population levels in Florida, left the state in the Great Migration. They left due to lynchings and racial violence, and for better opportunities in the North and the West.[57] Disfranchisement for most African Americans in the state persisted until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s gained federal legislation in 1965 to enforce protection of their constitutional suffrage. Black and white photograph of segregationists fighting on a beach White segregationists (foreground) trying to prevent black people from swimming at a "White only" beach in St. Augustine during the 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests In response to racial segregation in Florida, a number of protests occurred in Florida during the 1950s and 1960s as part of the Civil Rights Movement. In 1956–1957, students at Florida A&M University organized a bus boycott in Tallahassee to mimic the Montgomery bus boycott and succeeded in integrating the city's buses.[58] Students also held sit-ins in 1960 in protest of segregated seating at local lunch counters, and in 1964 an incident at a St. Augustine motel pool, in which the owner poured acid into the water during a demonstration, influenced the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.[59] Economic prosperity in the 1920s stimulated tourism to Florida and related development of hotels and resort communities. Combined with its sudden elevation in profile was the Florida land boom of the 1920s, which brought a brief period of intense land development. In 1925, the Seaboard Air Line broke the FEC's southeast Florida monopoly and extended its freight and passenger service to West Palm Beach; two years later it extended passenger service to Miami. Devastating hurricanes in 1926 and 1928, followed by the Great Depression, brought that period to a halt. Florida's economy did not fully recover until the military buildup for World War II. Miami's Freedom Tower, built in 1925, was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1979. In 1939, Florida was described as "still very largely an empty State."[60] Subsequently, the growing availability of air conditioning, the climate, and a low cost of living made the state a haven. Migration from the Rust Belt and the Northeast sharply increased Florida's population after 1945. In the 1960s, many refugees from Cuba fleeing Fidel Castro's communist regime arrived in Miami at the Freedom Tower, where the federal government used the facility to process, document and provide medical and dental services for the newcomers. As a result, the Freedom Tower was also called the "Ellis Island of the South."[61] In recent decades, more migrants have come for the jobs in a developing economy. With a population of more than 18 million, according to the 2010 census, Florida is the most populous state in the southeastern United States and the third-most populous in the United States.[62] The population of Florida has boomed in recent years with the state being the recipient of the largest number of out-of-state movers in the country as of 2019.[63] Florida's growth has been widespread, as cities throughout the state have continued to see population growth.[64] Florida was the site of the killing of Trayvon Martin, a young black man killed by George Zimmerman in Sanford. The incident drew national attention to Florida's stand-your-ground laws, and it sparked African American activism nationally, including the Black Lives Matter movement.[65] After Hurricane Maria devastated Puerto Rico in September 2017, a large population of Puerto Ricans began moving to Florida to escape the widespread destruction. Hundreds of thousands of Puerto Ricans arrived in Florida after Maria dissipated, with nearly half of them arriving in Orlando and large populations also moving to Tampa, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach.[66] Memorials left on the fence of the Pulse nightclub in Orlando in 2016 A handful of high-profile mass shootings have occurred in Florida in the twenty-first century. In June 2016, a gunman killed 49 people at a gay nightclub in Orlando. It is the deadliest incident in the history of violence against LGBT people in the United States, as well as the deadliest terrorist attack in the U.S. since the September 11 attacks in 2001, and was the deadliest mass shooting by a single gunman in U.S. history until the 2017 Las Vegas shooting. In February 2018, 17 people were killed in a school shooting at Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, leading to new gun control regulations at both the state and federal level.[67] On June 24, 2021, a condominium in Surfside, Florida near Miami collapsed, killing at least 97 people.[68] The Surfside collapse is tied with the Knickerbocker Theatre collapse as the third-deadliest structural engineering failure in United States history, behind the Hyatt Regency walkway collapse and the collapse of the Pemberton Mill.[69][70] Geography Main article: Geography of Florida See also: List of counties in Florida, List of places in Florida, List of municipalities in Florida, List of islands of Florida, and List of Florida state parks Florida is mostly low-lying and flat as this topographic map shows. Much of Florida is on a peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean and the Straits of Florida. Spanning two time zones, it extends to the northwest into a panhandle, extending along the northern Gulf of Mexico. It is bordered on the north by Georgia and Alabama, and on the west, at the end of the panhandle, by Alabama. It is the only state that borders both the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Florida also is the southernmost of the 48 contiguous states, Hawaii being the only one of the fifty states reaching farther south. Florida is west of The Bahamas and 90 miles (140 km) north of Cuba. Florida is one of the largest states east of the Mississippi River, and only Alaska and Michigan are larger in water area. The water boundary is 3 nautical miles (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) offshore in the Atlantic Ocean[71] and 9 nautical miles (10 mi; 17 km) offshore in the Gulf of Mexico.[71] At 345 feet (105 m) above mean sea level, Britton Hill is the highest point in Florida and the lowest highpoint of any U.S. state.[72] Much of the state south of Orlando lies at a lower elevation than northern Florida, and is fairly level. Much of the state is at or near sea level. However, some places such as Clearwater have promontories that rise 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) above the water. Much of Central and North Florida, typically 25 mi (40 km) or more away from the coastline, have rolling hills with elevations ranging from 100 to 250 ft (30 to 76 m). The highest point in peninsular Florida (east and south of the Suwannee River), Sugarloaf Mountain, is a 312-foot (95 m) peak in Lake County.[73] On average, Florida is the flattest state in the United States.[74] Climate Main article: Climate of Florida See also: List of Florida hurricanes and U.S. state temperature extremes The state tree, Sabal palmetto, flourishes in Florida's overall warm climate. The climate of Florida is tempered somewhat by the fact that no part of the state is distant from the ocean. North of Lake Okeechobee, the prevalent climate is humid subtropical (Köppen: Cfa), while areas south of the lake (including the Florida Keys) have a true tropical climate (Köppen: Aw, Am, and Af).[75] Mean high temperatures for late July are primarily in the low 90s Fahrenheit (32–34 °C). Mean low temperatures for early to mid January range from the low 40s Fahrenheit (4–7 °C) in north Florida to above 60 °F (16 °C) from Miami on southward. With an average daily temperature of 70.7 °F (21.5 °C), it is the warmest state in the U.S.[76][77] In the summer, high temperatures in the state rarely exceed 100 °F (37.8 °C). Several record cold maxima have been in the 30s °F (−1 to 4 °C) and record lows have been in the 10s (−12 to −7 °C). These temperatures normally extend at most a few days at a time in the northern and central parts of Florida. South Florida, however, rarely encounters below freezing temperatures.[78] The hottest temperature ever recorded in Florida was 109 °F (43 °C), which was set on June 29, 1931, in Monticello. The coldest temperature was −2 °F (−19 °C), on February 13, 1899, just 25 miles (40 km) away, in Tallahassee.[79][80] Due to its subtropical and tropical climate, Florida rarely receives measurable snowfall.[81] However, on rare occasions, a combination of cold moisture and freezing temperatures can result in snowfall in the farthest northern regions like Jacksonville, Gainesville or Pensacola. Frost, which is more common than snow, sometimes occurs in the panhandle.[82] The USDA Plant hardiness zones for the state range from zone 8a (no colder than 10 °F or −12 °C) in the inland western panhandle to zone 11b (no colder than 45 °F or 7 °C) in the lower Florida Keys.[83] Fog also occurs all over the state or climate of Florida.[84] Average high and low temperatures for various Florida cities °F Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jacksonville[85] 65/42 68/45 74/50 79/55 86/63 90/70 92/73 91/73 87/69 80/61 74/51 67/44 Miami[86] 76/60 78/62 80/65 83/68 87/73 89/76 91/77 91/77 89/76 86/73 82/68 78/63 Orlando[87] 71/49 74/52 78/56 83/60 88/66 91/72 92/74 92/74 90/73 85/66 78/59 73/52 Pensacola[88] 61/43 64/46 70/51 76/58 84/66 89/72 90/74 90/74 87/70 80/60 70/50 63/45 Tallahassee[89] 64/39 68/42 74/47 80/52 87/62 91/70 92/72 92/72 89/68 82/57 73/48 66/41 Tampa[90] 70/51 73/54 77/58 81/62 88/69 90/74 90/75 91/76 89/74 85/67 78/60 72/54 °C Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jacksonville 18/6 20/7 23/10 26/13 30/17 32/21 33/23 33/23 31/21 27/16 23/11 19/7 Miami 24/16 26/17 27/18 28/20 31/23 32/24 33/25 33/25 32/24 30/23 28/20 26/17 Orlando 22/9 23/11 26/13 28/16 31/19 33/22 33/23 33/23 32/23 29/19 26/15 23/11 Pensacola 16/6 18/8 21/11 24/14 29/19 32/22 32/23 32/23 31/21 27/16 21/10 17/7 Tallahassee 18/4 20/6 23/8 27/11 31/17 33/21 33/22 33/22 32/20 28/14 23/9 19/5 Tampa 21/11 23/12 25/14 27/17 31/21 32/23 32/24 33/24 32/23 29/19 26/16 22/12 Florida's nickname is the "Sunshine State", but severe weather is a common occurrence in the state. Central Florida is known as the lightning capital of the United States, as it experiences more lightning strikes than anywhere else in the country.[91] Florida has one of the highest average precipitation levels of any state,[92] in large part because afternoon thunderstorms are common in much of the state from late spring until early autumn.[93] A narrow eastern part of the state including Orlando and Jacksonville receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually. The rest of the state, including Miami, receives between 2,800 and 3,200 hours annually.[94] Florida leads the United States in tornadoes per area (when including waterspouts),[95] but they do not typically reach the intensity of those in the Midwest and Great Plains. Hail often accompanies the most severe thunderstorms.[96] Hurricanes pose a severe threat each year from June 1 to November 30, particularly from August to October. Florida is the most hurricane-prone state, with subtropical or tropical water on a lengthy coastline. Of the category 4 or higher storms that have struck the United States, 83% have either hit Florida or Texas.[97] From 1851 to 2006, Florida was struck by 114 hurricanes, 37 of them major—category 3 and above.[97] It is rare for a hurricane season to pass without any impact in the state by at least a tropical storm.[98] In 1992, Florida was the site of what was then the costliest weather disaster in U.S. history, Hurricane Andrew, which caused more than $25 billion in damages when it struck during August; it held that distinction until 2005, when Hurricane Katrina surpassed it, and it has since been surpassed by six other hurricanes. Andrew is currently the second-costliest hurricane in Florida's history.[99] Fauna Further information: Fauna of Florida and List of invasive species in Florida An alligator in the Florida Everglades West Indian manatee Florida is host to many types of wildlife including: Marine mammals: bottlenose dolphin, short-finned pilot whale, North Atlantic right whale, West Indian manatee Mammals: Florida panther, northern river otter, mink, eastern cottontail rabbit, marsh rabbit, raccoon, striped skunk, squirrel, white-tailed deer, Key deer, bobcats, red fox, gray fox, coyote, wild boar, Florida black bear, nine-banded armadillos, Virginia opossum Reptiles: eastern diamondback and pygmy rattlesnakes, gopher tortoise, green and leatherback sea turtles,[100] brown anoles, and eastern indigo snake. In 2012, there were about one million American alligators and 1,500 crocodiles.[101] Birds: peregrine falcon,[102] bald eagle, American flamingo,[103] crested caracara, snail kite, osprey, white and brown pelicans, sea gulls, whooping and sandhill cranes, roseate spoonbill, American white ibis, Florida scrub jay (state endemic), and others. One subspecies of wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo osceola, is found only in Florida.[104] The state is a wintering location for many species of eastern North American birds. As a result of climate change, there have been small numbers of several new species normally native to cooler areas to the north: snowy owls, snow buntings, harlequin ducks, and razorbills. These have been seen in the northern part of the state.[105] Invertebrates: carpenter ants, termites, American cockroach, Africanized bees, the Miami blue butterfly, and the grizzled mantis. Florida also has more than 500 nonnative animal species and 1,000 nonnative insects found throughout the state.[106] Some exotic species living in Florida include the Burmese python, green iguana, veiled chameleon, Argentine black and white tegu, peacock bass, mayan cichlid, lionfish, White-nosed coati, rhesus macaque, vervet monkey, Cuban tree frog, cane toad, Indian peafowl, monk parakeet, tui parakeet, and many more. Some of these nonnative species do not pose a threat to any native species, but some do threaten the native species of Florida by living in the state and eating them.[107] Flora Further information: Florida mangroves and List of invasive plant species in Florida Red mangroves in Everglades National Park The state has more than 26,000 square miles (67,000 km2) of forests, covering about half of the state's land area.[108] There are about 3,000 different types of wildflowers in Florida.[109] This is the third-most diverse state in the union, behind California and Texas, both larger states.[110] In Florida, wild populations of coconut palms extend up the East Coast from Key West to Jupiter Inlet, and up the West Coast from Marco Island to Sarasota. Many of the smallest coral islands in the Florida Keys are known to have abundant coconut palms sprouting from coconuts deposited by ocean currents. Coconut palms are cultivated north of south Florida to roughly Cocoa Beach on the East Coast and the Tampa Bay Area on the West Coast.[111] On the east coast of the state, mangroves have normally dominated the coast from Cocoa Beach southward; salt marshes from St. Augustine northward. From St. Augustine south to Cocoa Beach, the coast fluctuates between the two, depending on the annual weather conditions.[105] All three mangrove species flower in the spring and early summer. Propagules fall from late summer through early autumn.[citation needed] Florida mangrove plant communities covered an estimated 430,000 to 540,000 acres (1,700 to 2,200 km2) in Florida in 1981. Ninety percent of the Florida mangroves are in southern Florida, in Collier, Lee, Miami-Dade and Monroe Counties. Florida Reef Main article: Florida Reef Fish and corals in John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park near Key Largo The Florida Reef is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States.[112] It is also the third-largest coral barrier reef system in the world, after the Great Barrier Reef and the Belize Barrier Reef.[113] The reef lies a little bit off of the coast of the Florida Keys. A lot of the reef lies within John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, which was the first underwater park in the United States.[114] The park contains a lot of tropical vegetation, marine life, and seabirds. The Florida Reef extends into other parks and sanctuaries as well including Dry Tortugas National Park, Biscayne National Park, and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Almost 1,400 species of marine plants and animals, including more than 40 species of stony corals and 500 species of fish, live on the Florida Reef.[115] The Florida Reef, being a delicate ecosystem like other coral reefs, faces many threats including overfishing, plastics in the ocean, coral bleaching, rising sea levels, and changes in sea surface temperature. Environmental issues Main article: Environment of Florida See also: Environmental issues in Florida American flamingos in South Florida An American alligator and an invasive Burmese python in Everglades National Park Florida is a low per capita energy user.[116] As of 2008, it is estimated that approximately 4% of energy in the state is generated through renewable resources.[117] Florida's energy production is 6% of the nation's total energy output, while total production of pollutants is lower, with figures of 6% for nitrogen oxide, 5% for carbon dioxide, and 4% for sulfur dioxide.[117] Wildfires in Florida occur at all times of the year.[118] All potable water resources have been controlled by the state government through five regional water authorities since 1972.[119] Red tide has been an issue on the southwest coast of Florida, as well as other areas. While there has been a great deal of conjecture over the cause of the toxic algae bloom, there is no evidence that it is being caused by pollution or that there has been an increase in the duration or frequency of red tides.[120] Red tide is now killing off wildlife or Tropical fish and coral reefs putting all in danger.[121] The Florida panther is close to extinction. A record 23 were killed in 2009, mainly by automobile collisions, leaving about 100 individuals in the wild. The Center for Biological Diversity and others have therefore called for a special protected area for the panther to be established.[122] Manatees are also dying at a rate higher than their reproduction.[123] American flamingos are rare to see in Florida due to being hunted in the 1900s, where it was to a point considered completely extirpated. Now the flamingos are reproducing toward making a comeback to South Florida since it is adamantly considered native to the state and also are now being protected.[124][125] Much of Florida has an elevation of less than 12 feet (3.7 m), including many populated areas. Therefore, it is susceptible to rising sea levels associated with global warming.[126] The Atlantic beaches that are vital to the state's economy are being washed out to sea due to rising sea levels caused by climate change. The Miami beach area, close to the continental shelf, is running out of accessible offshore sand reserves.[127] Elevated temperatures can damage coral reefs, causing coral bleaching. The first recorded bleaching incident on the Florida Reef was in 1973. Incidents of bleaching have become more frequent in recent decades, in correlation with a rise in sea surface temperatures. White band disease has also adversely affected corals on the Florida Reef.[128] Geology Main article: Geology of Florida The Florida Keys as seen from a satellite[129] The Florida peninsula is a porous plateau of karst limestone sitting atop bedrock known as the Florida Platform. The largest deposits of potash in the United States are found in Florida.[130] The largest deposits of rock phosphate in the country are found in Florida.[130] Most of this is in Bone Valley.[131] Extended systems of underwater caves, sinkholes and springs are found throughout the state and supply most of the water used by residents.[132] The limestone is topped with sandy soils deposited as ancient beaches over millions of years as global sea levels rose and fell. During the last glacial period, lower sea levels and a drier climate revealed a much wider peninsula, largely savanna.[133] While there are sinkholes in much of the state, modern sinkholes have tended to be in West-Central Florida.[134][135] Everglades National Park covers 1,509,000 acres (6,110 km2), throughout Dade, Monroe, and Collier counties in Florida.[citation needed] The Everglades, an enormously wide, slow-flowing river encompasses the southern tip of the peninsula. Sinkhole damage claims on property in the state exceeded a total of $2 billion from 2006 through 2010.[136] Winter Park Sinkhole, in central Florida, appeared May 8, 1981. It was approximately 350 feet (107 m) wide and 75 feet (23 m) deep. It was notable as one of the largest recent sinkholes to form in the United States. It is now known as Lake Rose.[137] The Econlockhatchee River (Econ River for short) is an 87.7-kilometer-long (54.5 mi)[138] north-flowing blackwater tributary of the St. Johns River, the longest river in the U.S. state of Florida. The Econ River flows through Osceola, Orange, and Seminole counties in Central Florida, just east of the Orlando Metropolitan Area (east of State Road 417). It is a designated Outstanding Florida Waters.[139] Earthquakes are rare because Florida is not located near any tectonic plate boundaries.[140] Regions All of the 67 counties in Florida Florida Panhandle Emerald Coast Forgotten Coast North Florida Pensacola metropolitan area Tallahassee metropolitan area North Central Florida Big Bend Nature Coast North Florida Gainesville metropolitan area Northeast Florida First Coast Jacksonville metropolitan area North Florida Central West Florida Nature Coast Tampa Bay Area Florida Suncoast Central Florida Greater Orlando Central East Florida Deltona–Daytona Beach–Ormond Beach metropolitan area Surf Coast/Fun Coast/Halifax Area Space Coast Treasure Coast Southwest Florida Florida Heartland Florida Everglades Florida Suncoast Sarasota metropolitan area Ten Thousand Islands South Florida Everglades Gold Coast Florida Keys Miami metropolitan area Cities and towns See also: List of metropolitan areas of Florida, List of municipalities in Florida, and List of urbanized areas in Florida (by population) The largest metropolitan area in the state as well as the entire southeastern United States is the Miami metropolitan area, with about 6.06 million people. The Tampa Bay Area, with more than 3.02 million, is the second largest; the Orlando metropolitan area, with more than 2.44 million, is third; and the Jacksonville metropolitan area, with more than 1.47 million, is fourth.[141] Florida has 22 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) defined by the United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Forty-three of Florida's 67 counties are in an MSA. The legal name in Florida for a city, town or village is "municipality". In Florida there is no legal difference between towns, villages and cities.[142] Florida is a highly urbanized state, with 89 percent of its population living in urban areas in 2000, compared to 79 percent nationally.[143] In 2012, 75% of the population lived within 10 miles (16 km) of the coastline.[144]    Largest cities or towns in Florida Source:[145] Rank Name County Pop. Rank Name County Pop. Jacksonville Jacksonville Miami Miami 1 Jacksonville Duval 949,611 11 Pembroke Pines Broward 171,178 Tampa Tampa Orlando Orlando 2 Miami Miami-Dade 442,241 12 Hollywood Broward 153,067 3 Tampa Hillsborough 384,959 13 Gainesville Alachua 141,085 4 Orlando Orange 307,573 14 Miramar Broward 134,721 5 St. Petersburg Pinellas 258,308 15 Coral Springs Broward 134,394 6 Hialeah Miami-Dade 223,109 16 Palm Bay Brevard 119,760 7 Port St. Lucie St. Lucie 204,851 17 West Palm Beach Palm Beach 117,415 8 Tallahassee Leon 196,169 18 Clearwater Pinellas 117,292 9 Cape Coral Lee 194,016 19 Lakeland Polk 112,641 10 Fort Lauderdale Broward 182,760 20 Pompano Beach Broward 112,046 Demographics Main article: Demographics of Florida See also: Culture of Florida Population Population density of Florida according to the 2020 census Historical population Census Pop. %± 1830 34,730 — 1840 54,477 56.9% 1850 87,445 60.5% 1860 140,424 60.6% 1870 187,748 33.7% 1880 269,493 43.5% 1890 391,422 45.2% 1900 528,542 35.0% 1910 752,619 42.4% 1920 968,470 28.7% 1930 1,468,211 51.6% 1940 1,897,414 29.2% 1950 2,771,305 46.1% 1960 4,951,560 78.7% 1970 6,789,443 37.1% 1980 9,746,324 43.6% 1990 12,937,926 32.7% 2000 15,982,378 23.5% 2010 18,801,310 17.6% 2020 21,538,187 14.6% Sources: 1910–2020[146] The United States Census Bureau estimated that the population of Florida was 21,477,737 on July 1, 2019, a 14.24% increase since the 2010 United States census.[147] The population of Florida in the 2010 census was 18,801,310.[148] Florida was the seventh fastest-growing state in the U.S. in the 12-month period ending July 1, 2012.[149] In 2010, the center of population of Florida was located between Fort Meade and Frostproof. The center of population has moved less than 5 miles (8 km) to the east and approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) to the north between 1980 and 2010 and has been located in Polk County since the 1960 census.[150] The population exceeded 19.7 million by December 2014, surpassing the population of the state of New York for the first time, making Florida the third most populous state.[151][152] The Florida population was 21,477,737 residents or people according to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2019 Population Estimates Program.[153] By the 2020 census, its population increased to 21,538,187. As of 2011, Florida contains the highest percentage of people over 65 (17.3%) in the U.S.[154] There were 186,102 military retirees living in the state in 2008.[155] About two-thirds of the population was born in another state, the second-highest in the U.S.[156] In 2010, undocumented immigrants constituted an estimated 5.7% of the population. This was the sixth highest percentage of any U.S. state.[157][158] There were an estimated 675,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010.[159] Florida has banned sanctuary cities.[160] Florida racial breakdown  Racial composition 1970[161] 1990[161] 2000[162] 2010[163] 2020[164][165] Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 6.6% 12.2% 16.8% 22.5% 26.5% Black or African American alone 15.3% 13.6% 14.6% 16.0% 15.1% Asian alone 0.2% 1.2% 1.7% 2.4% 3.0% Native American alone 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% Two or more races — — 2.3% 2.5% 16.5% White alone, not Hispanic or Latino 77.9% 73.2% 65.4% 57.9% 51.5% White alone 84.2% 83.1% 78.0% 75.0% 57.7% In 2020, Hispanic and Latinos of any race(s) made up 26.5% of the population, while Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders made up 0.1% of all Broward County residents.[166] In 2010, 6.9% of the population (1,269,765) considered themselves to be of only American ancestry (regardless of race or ethnicity).[167][168] Many of these were of English or Scotch-Irish descent; however, their families have lived in the state for so long they choose to identify as having "American" ancestry or do not know their ancestry.[169][170][171][172][173][174] In the 1980 United States census, the largest ancestry group reported in Florida was English with 2,232,514 Floridians claiming they were of English or mostly English American ancestry.[175] Some of their ancestry dated to the original thirteen colonies. As of 2010, those of (non-Hispanic white) European ancestry accounted for 57.9% of Florida's population. Out of the 57.9%, the largest groups were 12.0% German (2,212,391), 10.7% Irish (1,979,058), 8.8% English (1,629,832), 6.6% Italian (1,215,242), 2.8% Polish (511,229), and 2.7% French (504,641).[167][168] White Americans of all European backgrounds are present in all areas of the state. In 1970, non-Hispanic whites constituted nearly 80% of Florida's population.[176] Those of English and Irish ancestry are present in large numbers in all the urban/suburban areas across the state. Some native white Floridians, especially those who have descended from long-time Florida families, may refer to themselves as "Florida crackers"; others see the term as a derogatory one. Like whites in most other states of the southern U.S., they descend mainly from English and Scots-Irish settlers, as well as some other British American settlers.[177] Cuban men playing dominoes in Miami's Little Havana. In 2010, Cubans made up 34.4% of Miami's population and 6.5% of Florida's.[178][179] As of 2010, those of Hispanic or Latino ancestry accounted for 22.5% (4,223,806) of Florida's population. Out of the 22.5%, the largest groups were 6.5% (1,213,438) Cuban, and 4.5% (847,550) Puerto Rican.[179] Florida's Hispanic population includes large communities of Cuban Americans in Miami and Tampa, Puerto Ricans in Orlando and Tampa, and Mexican/Central American migrant workers. The Hispanic community continues to grow more affluent and mobile. Florida has a large and diverse Hispanic population, with Cubans and Puerto Ricans being the largest groups in the state. Nearly 80% of Cuban Americans live in Florida, especially South Florida where there is a long-standing and affluent Cuban community.[180] Florida has the second-largest Puerto Rican population after New York, as well as the fastest-growing in the nation.[181] Puerto Ricans are more widespread throughout the state, though the heaviest concentrations are in the Orlando area of Central Florida.[182] Florida has one of the largest and most diverse Hispanic/Latino populations in the country, especially in South Florida around Miami, and to a lesser degree Central Florida. Aside from the dominant Cuban and Puerto Rican populations, there are also large populations of Mexicans, Colombians, Venezuelans and Dominicans, among numerous other groups, as most Latino groups have sizable numbers in the state. As of 2010, those of African ancestry accounted for 16.0% of Florida's population, which includes African Americans. Out of the 16.0%, 4.0% (741,879) were West Indian or Afro-Caribbean American.[167][168][179] During the early 1900s, black people made up nearly half of the state's population.[183] In response to segregation, disfranchisement and agricultural depression, many African Americans migrated from Florida to northern cities in the Great Migration, in waves from 1910 to 1940, and again starting in the later 1940s. They moved for jobs, better education for their children and the chance to vote and participate in society. By 1960, the proportion of African Americans in the state had declined to 18%.[184] Conversely, large numbers of northern whites moved to the state.[citation needed] Today, large concentrations of black residents can be found in northern and central Florida. Aside from blacks descended from African slaves brought to the southern U.S., there are also large numbers of blacks of West Indian, recent African, and Afro-Latino immigrant origins, especially in the Miami/South Florida area.[185] Florida has the largest West Indian population of any state, originating from many Caribbean countries, with Haitian Americans being the most numerous. In 2016, Florida had the highest percentage of West Indians in the United States at 4.5%, with 2.3% (483,874) from Haitian ancestry, 1.5% (303,527) Jamaican, and 0.2% (31,966) Bahamian, with the other West Indian groups making up the rest.[186] As of 2010, those of Asian ancestry accounted for 2.4% of Florida's population.[167][168] Languages See also: Demographics of Florida § Languages, and Miami accent In 1988, English was affirmed as the state's official language in the Florida Constitution. Spanish is also widely spoken, especially as immigration has continued from Latin America.[187] About twenty percent of the population speak Spanish as their first language. Twenty-seven percent of Florida's population reports speaking a mother language other than English, and more than 200 first languages other than English are spoken at home in the state.[188][189] The most common languages spoken in Florida as a first language in 2010 are:[188] 73% English 20% Spanish 2% Haitian Creole Other languages less than 1% each Religion Church of the Little Flower in Coral Gables, Florida Hindu Temple of Florida in Tampa Florida is mostly Christian (70%),[190] although there is a large irreligious and relatively significant Jewish community. Protestants account for almost half of the population, but the Catholic Church is the largest single denomination in the state mainly due to its large Hispanic population and other groups like Haitians. Protestants are very diverse, although Baptists, Methodists, Pentecostals and nondenominational Protestants are the largest groups. Smaller Christian groups include The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses. There is also a sizable Jewish community in South Florida. This is the largest Jewish population in the southern U.S. and the third-largest in the U.S. behind those of New York and California.[191] In 2010, the three largest denominations in Florida were the Catholic Church, the Southern Baptist Convention, and the United Methodist Church.[192] The Pew Research Center survey in 2014 gave the following religious makeup of Florida:[193] Religion in Florida (2014)[190] Protestant   46% Catholic   21% Mormon   1% Jehovah's Witness   1% Other Christian   1% Nothing in Particular   17% Agnostic   4% Atheist   3% Jewish   3% Other faiths (e.g. Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism)   3% Governance Main article: Government of Florida See also: List of governors of Florida, United States congressional delegations from Florida, List of United States senators from Florida, and Florida Cabinet Old and New Florida State Capitol, Tallahassee, East view The basic structure, duties, function, and operations of the government of the State of Florida are defined and established by the Florida Constitution, which establishes the basic law of the state and guarantees various rights and freedoms of the people. The state government consists of three separate branches: judicial, executive, and legislative. The legislature enacts bills, which, if signed by the governor, become law. The Florida Legislature comprises the Florida Senate, which has 40 members, and the Florida House of Representatives, which has 120 members. The current governor of Florida is Ron DeSantis. The Florida Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six justices. Florida has 67 counties. Some reference materials may show only 66 because Duval County is consolidated with the City of Jacksonville. There are 379 cities in Florida (out of 411) that report regularly to the Florida Department of Revenue, but there are other incorporated municipalities that do not. The state government's primary revenue source is sales tax. Florida does not impose a personal income tax. The primary revenue source for cities and counties is property tax; unpaid taxes are subject to tax sales, which are held (at the county level) in May and (due to the extensive use of online bidding sites) are highly popular. There were 800 federal corruption convictions from 1988 to 2007, more than any other state.[194] In a 2020 study, Florida was ranked as the 11th hardest state for citizens to vote in.[195] In April 2022, the state prohibited ranked-choice voting in all federal, state and municipal elections.[196] Elections history Further information: Elections in Florida, Politics of Florida, Political party strength in Florida, and United States presidential elections in Florida From 1952 to 1964, most voters were registered Democrats, but the state voted for the Republican presidential candidate in every election except for 1964. The following year, Congress passed and President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, providing for oversight of state practices and enforcement of constitutional voting rights for African Americans and other minorities in order to prevent the discrimination and disenfranchisement which had excluded most of them for decades from the political process. From the 1930s through much of the 1960s, Florida was essentially a one-party state dominated by white conservative Democrats, who together with other Democrats of the Solid South, exercised considerable control in Congress. They have gained slightly less federal money from national programs than they have paid in taxes.[197] Since the 1970s, conservative white voters in the state have largely shifted from the Democratic to the Republican Party. Though the majority of registered voters in Florida are Democrats,[198] it continued to support Republican presidential candidates through 2004, except in 1976 and 1996, when the Democratic nominee was from the South. In the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections, Barack Obama carried the state as a northern Democrat, attracting high voter turnout, especially among the young, independents, and minority voters, of whom Hispanics comprise an increasingly large proportion. 2008 marked the first time since 1944, when Franklin D. Roosevelt carried the state for the fourth time, that Florida was carried by a Northern Democrat for president. The first post-Reconstruction era Republican elected to Congress from Florida was William C. Cramer in 1954 from Pinellas County on the Gulf Coast,[199] where demographic changes were underway. In this period, African Americans were still disenfranchised by the state's constitution and discriminatory practices; in the 19th century, they had made up most of the Republican Party. Cramer built a different Republican Party in Florida, attracting local white conservatives and transplants from northern and midwestern states. In 1966, Claude R. Kirk, Jr. was elected as the first post-Reconstruction Republican governor, in an upset election.[200] In 1968, Edward J. Gurney, also a white conservative, was elected as the state's first post-reconstruction Republican US senator.[201] In 1970, Democrats took the governorship and the open US Senate seat and maintained dominance for years. Florida is sometimes considered a bellwether state in presidential elections because every candidate who won the state from 1996 until 2020 won the election.[202] The 2020 election broke that streak when Donald Trump won Florida but lost the election. In 1998, Democratic voters dominated areas of the state with a high percentage of racial minorities and transplanted white liberals from the northeastern United States, known colloquially as "snowbirds".[203] South Florida and the Miami metropolitan area are dominated by both racial minorities and white liberals. Because of this, the area has consistently voted as one of the most Democratic areas of the state. The Daytona Beach area is similar demographically and the city of Orlando has a large Hispanic population, which has often favored Democrats. Republicans, made up mostly of white conservatives, have dominated throughout much of the rest of Florida, particularly in the more rural and suburban areas. This is characteristic of its voter base throughout the Deep South.[203] The fast-growing I-4 corridor area, which runs through Central Florida and connects the cities of Daytona Beach, Orlando, and Tampa/St. Petersburg, has had a fairly even breakdown of Republican and Democratic voters. The area is often seen as a merging point of the conservative northern portion of the state and the liberal southern portion, making it the biggest swing area in the state. Since the late 20th century, the voting results in this area, containing 40% of Florida voters, has often determined who will win the state in federal presidential elections.[204] The Democratic Party maintained an edge in voter registration, both statewide and in 18 of the 67 counties, including Miami-Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach counties, the state's three most populous.[205][when?] 2000–present Main article: United States presidential election in Florida, 2000 In 2000, George W. Bush won the U.S. presidential election by a margin of 271–266 in the Electoral College.[206] Of the 271 electoral votes for Bush, 25 were cast by electors from Florida.[207] The Florida results were contested and a recount was ordered by the court, with the results settled in a Supreme Court decision, Bush v. Gore. Reapportionment following the 2010 United States Census gave the state two more seats in the House of Representatives.[208] The legislature's redistricting, announced in 2012, was quickly challenged in court, on the grounds that it had unfairly benefited Republican interests. In 2015, the Florida Supreme Court ruled on appeal that the congressional districts had to be redrawn because of the legislature's violation of the Fair District Amendments to the state constitution passed in 2010; it accepted a new map in early December 2015. The political make-up of congressional and legislative districts has enabled Republicans to control the governorship and most statewide elective offices, and 17 of the state's 27 seats in the 2012 House of Representatives.[209] Florida has been listed as a swing state in presidential elections since 1952, voting for the losing candidate only twice in that period of time.[210] Treemap of the popular vote by county, 2016 presidential election In the closely contested 2000 election, the state played a pivotal role.[206][207][211][212][213][214] Out of more than 5.8 million votes for the two main contenders Bush and Al Gore, around 500 votes separated the two candidates for the all-decisive Florida electoral votes that landed Bush the election win. Florida's felony disenfranchisement law is more severe than most European nations or other American states. A 2002 study in the American Sociological Review concluded that "if the state's 827,000 disenfranchised felons had voted at the same rate as other Floridians, Democratic candidate Al Gore would have won Florida—and the presidency—by more than 80,000 votes."[215] In 2008, delegates of both the Republican Florida primary election and Democratic Florida primary election were stripped of half of their votes when the conventions met in August due to violation of both parties' national rules. In the 2010 elections, Republicans solidified their dominance statewide, by winning the governor's mansion, and maintaining firm majorities in both houses of the state legislature. They won four previously Democratic-held seats to create a 19–6 Republican majority delegation representing Florida in the federal House of Representatives. In 2010, more than 63% of state voters approved the initiated Amendments 5 and 6 to the state constitution, to ensure more fairness in districting. These have become known as the Fair District Amendments. As a result of the 2010 United States Census, Florida gained two House of Representative seats in 2012.[208] The legislature issued revised congressional districts in 2012, which were immediately challenged in court by supporters of the above amendments. The court ruled in 2014, after lengthy testimony, that at least two districts had to be redrawn because of gerrymandering. After this was appealed, in July 2015 the Florida Supreme Court ruled that lawmakers had followed an illegal and unconstitutional process overly influenced by party operatives, and ruled that at least eight districts had to be redrawn. On December 2, 2015, a 5–2 majority of the Court accepted a new map of congressional districts, some of which was drawn by challengers. Their ruling affirmed the map previously approved by Leon County Judge Terry Lewis, who had overseen the original trial. It particularly makes changes in South Florida. There are likely to be additional challenges to the map and districts.[216] Voter registration totals as of July 31, 2022[217] Party Registered voters Percentage Republican 5,194,845 36.26% Democratic 4,963,930 34.65% Unaffiliated 3,909,340 27.29% Minor parties 257,491 1.80% Total 14,325,606 100% According to The Sentencing Project, the effect of Florida's felony disenfranchisement law is such that in 2014, "[m]ore than one in ten Floridians—and nearly one in four African-American Floridians—are [were] shut out of the polls because of felony convictions", although they had completed sentences and parole/probation requirements.[218] The state switched back to the GOP in the 2016 presidential election, and again in 2020, when Donald Trump headed the party's ticket both times. 2020 marked the first time Florida sided with the eventual loser of the national election since 1992. In the 2018 elections, the ratio of Republican to Democratic representation fell from 16:11 to 14:13. The U.S. Senate election between Democratic incumbent senator Bill Nelson and then governor Rick Scott was close, with 49.93% voting for the incumbent and 50.06% voting for the former governor. Republicans also held onto the governorship in a close race between Republican candidate Ron DeSantis and Democratic candidate Andrew Gillum, with 49.6% voting for DeSantis and 49.3% voting for Gillum. In November 2021, for the first time in Florida's history, the total number of registered Republican voters exceeded the number of registered Democrats.[219] Statutes See also: Law of Florida Florida Supreme Court building in Tallahassee In 1972, the state made personal injury protection auto insurance mandatory for drivers, becoming the second in the nation to enact a no-fault insurance law.[220] The ease of receiving payments under this law is seen as precipitating a major increase in insurance fraud.[221] Auto insurance fraud was the highest in the nation in 2011, estimated at close to $1 billion.[222] Fraud is particularly centered in the Miami-Dade and Tampa areas.[223][224][225] Capital punishment is applied in Florida.[226] If a person committing a predicate felony directly contributed to the death of the victim then the person will be charged with murder in the first degree. The only two sentences available for that statute are life imprisonment and the death penalty.[227][228] If a person commits a predicate felony, but was not the direct contributor to the death of the victim then the person will be charged with murder in the second degree. The maximum prison term is life.[227][228] In 1995, the legislature modified Chapter 921 to provide that felons should serve at least 85% of their sentence.[229][230] Florida approved its lottery by amending the constitution in 1984. It approved slot machines in Broward and Miami-Dade County in 2004. It has disapproved casinos (outside of sovereign Seminole and Miccosukee tribal areas) three times: 1978, 1986, and 1994.[231] Taxation Tax is collected by the Florida Department of Revenue. Economy Main article: Economy of Florida The economy of the state of Florida is the fourth-largest in the United States, with a $1.2 trillion gross state product (GSP) as of 2021.[232] If Florida were a sovereign nation (2021), it would rank as the world's 16th-largest economy according to the International Monetary Fund, ahead of Indonesia and behind Mexico.[232][233][234] In the 20th century, tourism, industry, construction, international banking, biomedical and life sciences, healthcare research, simulation training, aerospace and defense, and commercial space travel have contributed to the state's economic development.[citation needed] Health Jackson Memorial Hospital in Miami, the primary teaching hospital of the University of Miami's Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine and the largest hospital in the United States with 1,547 beds[235] There were 2.7 million Medicaid patients in Florida in 2009. The governor has proposed adding $2.6 billion to care for the expected 300,000 additional patients in 2011.[236] The cost of caring for 2.3 million clients in 2010 was $18.8 billion.[237] This is nearly 30% of Florida's budget.[238] Medicaid paid for 60% of all births in Florida in 2009. The state has a program for those not covered by Medicaid. In 2013, Florida refused to participate in providing coverage for the uninsured under the Affordable Care Act, colloquially called Obamacare. The Florida legislature also refused to accept additional Federal funding for Medicaid, although this would have helped its constituents at no cost to the state. As a result, Florida is second only to Texas in the percentage of its citizens without health insurance.[citation needed] Architecture See also: Architecture of Miami and Architecture of Jacksonville Miami Art Deco District, built during the 1920s–1930s Florida has the largest collection of Art Deco and Streamline Moderne buildings, both in the United States and in the entire world, most of which are located in the Miami metropolitan area, especially Miami Beach's Art Deco District, constructed as the city was becoming a resort destination.[239] A unique architectural design found only in Florida is the post-World War II Miami Modern, which can be seen in areas such as Miami's MiMo Historic District.[240] Being of early importance as a regional center of banking and finance, the architecture of Jacksonville displays a wide variety of styles and design principles. Many of the state's earliest skyscrapers were constructed in Jacksonville, dating as far back as 1902,[241] and last holding a state height record from 1974 to 1981.[242] The city is endowed with one of the largest collections of Prairie School buildings outside of the Midwest.[243] Jacksonville is also noteworthy for its collection of Mid-Century modern architecture.[244] Some sections of the state feature architectural styles including Spanish revival, Florida vernacular, and Mediterranean Revival.[245] A notable collection of these styles can be found in St. Augustine, the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement within the borders of the United States.[246] Education Main article: Education in Florida University of Miami, Coral Gables See also: List of colleges and universities in Florida, List of high schools in Florida, and List of school districts in Florida University of Central Florida, Orlando Florida International University, Miami University of South Florida, Tampa Florida State University, Tallahassee University of Florida, Gainesville In 2020, Florida was ranked the third best state in America for K-12 education, outperforming the nation in 15 out of 18 metrics in Education Week's 2020 Quality Counts report.[247] In terms of K-12 Achievement, which measures progress in areas such as academic excellence and graduation rates, the state was graded "B-" compared to a national average of C.[247] Florida's higher education was ranked first and pre-K-12 was ranked 27th best nationwide by U.S. News & World Report.[248] Primary and secondary education With an educational system made up of public school districts and independent private institutions, Florida had 2,833,115 students enrolled in 4,269 public primary, secondary, and vocational schools in Florida's 67 regular or seven special school districts as of 2018.[249] Miami-Dade County is the largest of Florida's 67 regular districts with more than 350 thousand students and Jefferson County is the smallest with less than one thousand students. Florida spent $8,920 for each student in 2016, and was 43rd in the nation in expenditures per student.[250] Florida's primary and secondary school systems are administered by the Florida Department of Education. School districts are organized within county boundaries. Each school district has an elected Board of Education that sets policy, budget, goals, and approves expenditures. Management is the responsibility of a Superintendent of schools. The Florida Department of Education is required by law to train educators in teaching English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL).[251] Higher education The State University System of Florida was founded in 1905, and is governed by the Florida Board of Governors. During the 2019 academic year, 346,604 students attended one of these twelve universities.[252] In 2016, Florida charged the second lowest tuition in the nation for four-year programs, at $26,000 for in-state students and $86,000 for out-of-state students; this compares with an average of $34,800 nationally for in-state students.[253] As of 2020, four Florida universities are among the top 10 largest universities by enrollment in the United States: The University of Central Florida (1st), Florida International University (4th), the University of Florida (5th), and the University of South Florida (8th). The Florida College System comprises 28 public community and state colleges with 68 campuses spread out throughout the state. In 2016, enrollment consisted of more than 813,838 students.[254] The Independent Colleges and Universities of Florida is an association of 30 private, educational institutions in the state.[255] This Association reported that their member institutions served more than 158,000 students in the fall of 2020.[256] The University of Miami, located in Miami-Dade County and Nova Southeastern University, located in Davie, are some of the top private research institutions in the United States. Florida's first private university, Stetson University, was founded in 1883. State University System of Florida Institution Location Established Enrollment Florida A&M University Tallahassee 1887[a] 10,031 Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton 1961 30,808 Florida Gulf Coast University Fort Myers 1991 15,080 Florida International University Miami 1965 58,787 Florida Polytechnic University Lakeland 2012 1,236 Florida State University Tallahassee 1851[a] 41,551 New College of Florida Sarasota 1960 838 University of Central Florida Orlando 1963 69,525 University of Florida Gainesville 1853[a] 56,567 University of North Florida Jacksonville 1972 17,002 University of South Florida Tampa 1956 51,646 University of West Florida Pensacola 1963 12,850  In 1836, the United States Congress authorized the establishment of a University of Florida in the Florida Territory, to be located on lands reserved in both East and West Florida. In 1851, the Florida legislature voted to establish two seminaries of learning: West Florida Seminary (which later became Florida State University) and East Florida Seminary (which later became the University of Florida).[257] In 1905, when the Buckman Act reorganized higher education in Florida, the three resulting state institutions (Florida, Florida State, and Florida A&M) all adopted 1905 as their founding date. In 1935 the Florida Board of Control changed the founding dates of Florida and Florida State to the years their predecessor Seminaries opened: 1853 and 1857, respectively. In 2000, Florida State declared 1851 to be its founding date, reflecting the date the legislature authorized both seminaries. Florida A&M later declared its founding date to be 1885 to reflect when its predecessor, the State Normal College for Colored Students, was founded.[258] Transportation Main article: Transportation in Florida The Sunshine Skyway Bridge over Tampa Bay is a part of Florida's interstate system. Highways Further information: Florida State Highway System, List of state roads in Florida, and County roads in Florida Florida's highway system contains 1,495 mi (2,406 km) of interstate highway, and 10,601 mi (17,061 km) of non-interstate highway, such as state highways and U.S. Highways. Florida's interstates, state highways, and U.S. Highways are maintained by the Florida Department of Transportation.[259] In 2011, there were about 9,000 retail gas stations in the state. Floridians consumed 21 million gallons of gasoline daily in 2011, ranking it third in national use behind California and Texas.[260] Motorists have the 45th lowest rate of car insurance in the U.S. 24% are uninsured.[261] Drivers between 15 and 19 years of age averaged 364 car crashes a year per ten thousand licensed Florida drivers in 2010. Drivers 70 and older averaged 95 per 10,000 during the same time frame. A spokesperson for the non-profit Insurance Institute stated "Older drivers are more of a threat to themselves."[262] Intercity bus travel, which utilizes Florida's highway system, is provided by Greyhound, Megabus, and Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach. Before the construction of routes under the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, Florida began construction of a long cross-state toll road, Florida's Turnpike. The first section, from Fort Pierce south to the Golden Glades Interchange was completed in 1957. After a second section north through Orlando to Wildwood (near present-day The Villages), and a southward extension around Miami to Homestead, it was finished in 1974. Florida's primary interstate routes include:  I-4, which spans 133 miles, bisects the state, connecting Tampa, Lakeland, Orlando, and Daytona Beach, connecting with I-75 in Tampa and I-95 in Daytona Beach.  I-10, which spans 362 miles in Florida, traverses the panhandle, connecting Pensacola, Tallahassee, Lake City, and Jacksonville, with interchanges with I-75 in Lake City and I-95 in Jacksonville. It is the southernmost east–west interstate in the United States terminating in Santa Monica with a total length of 2460 miles.  I-75, which spans 470 miles in Florida, enters the state near Lake City (45 miles (72 km) west of Jacksonville) and continues southward through Gainesville, Ocala, Tampa's eastern suburbs, Bradenton, Sarasota, Fort Myers and Naples, where it crosses the "Alligator Alley" as a toll road to Fort Lauderdale before turning southward and terminating in Hialeah/Miami Lakes having interchanges with I-10 in Lake City and I-4 in Tampa. It is the second longest north–south interstate with a total length of 1786 miles and terminates at the Canadian border at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan.  I-95, which spans 382 miles in Florida, enters the state near Jacksonville and continues along the Atlantic Coast through Daytona Beach, the Melbourne/Titusville, Palm Bay, Vero Beach, Fort Pierce, Port Saint Lucie, Stuart, West Palm Beach, and Fort Lauderdale, before terminating in Downtown Miami. It has interchanges with I-10 in Jacksonville and I-4 in Daytona Beach, and there are four auxiliary routes associated with the interstate. It is the longest north–south interstate with a total length of 1924 miles and terminates at the Canadian border northeast of Houlton, Maine. Airports See also: List of airports in Florida and Aviation in Florida Orlando International Airport is the busiest airport in the state with 44.6 million total passengers traveled in 2017.[263] Florida has 131 public airports.[264] Florida's seven large hub and medium hub airports, as classified by the FAA,[265] are the following: City served Code Airport name FAA Category Enplanements Orlando MCO Orlando International Airport Large Hub 21,565,448 Miami MIA Miami International Airport Large Hub 20,709,225 Fort Lauderdale FLL Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood Int'l Airport Large Hub 15,817,043 Tampa TPA Tampa International Airport Large Hub 9,548,580 Fort Myers RSW Southwest Florida International Airport Medium Hub 4,364,224 West Palm Beach PBI Palm Beach International Airport Medium Hub 3,110,450 Jacksonville JAX Jacksonville International Airport Medium Hub 2,701,861 Intercity rail Brightline train at Fort Lauderdale Brightline is a diesel–electric higher-speed rail system.[266] Currently service is only from West Palm Beach to Miami through express intercity service, with a stop at Fort Lauderdale. The complete project is intended to connect Miami and South Florida to Orlando, which requires a new line westward from the coast. It partially opened for passenger service between Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach on January 13, 2018, as the only privately owned and operated passenger railroad in the United States.[267] With a top speed of 125 mph (201 km/h), Brightline will eventually be tied with Amtrak's Northeast Regional and the MARC's Penn Line commuter rail as the second fastest passenger train in North America, after Amtrak's Acela. Florida is also served by Amtrak, operating numerous lines throughout, connecting the state's largest cities to points north in the United States and Canada. The busiest Amtrak train stations in Florida in 2011 were: Sanford (259,944), Orlando (179,142), Tampa Union Station (140,785), Miami (94,556), and Jacksonville (74,733).[268] Sanford, in Greater Orlando, is the southern terminus of the Auto Train, which originates at Lorton, Virginia, south of Washington, D.C. Until 2005, Orlando was also the eastern terminus of the Sunset Limited, which travels across the southern United States via New Orleans, Houston, and San Antonio to its western terminus of Los Angeles. Florida is served by two additional Amtrak trains (the Silver Star and the Silver Meteor), which operate between New York City and Miami. MiamiCentral in Greater Downtown Miami and the Miami Intermodal Center near Miami International Airport are major hubs for rapid transit, commuter rail, intercity rail, and buses. Public transit Further information: Transportation in South Florida The Miami Metrorail is the state's only rapid transit system. About 15% of Miamians use public transit daily. Miami: Miami's public transportation is served by Miami-Dade Transit that runs Metrorail, a heavy rail rapid transit system, Metromover, a people mover train system in Downtown Miami, and Metrobus, Miami's bus system. Metrorail runs throughout Miami-Dade County and has two lines and 23 stations connecting to Downtown Miami's Metromover and Tri-Rail. Metromover has three lines and 21 stations throughout Downtown Miami. Outside of Miami-Dade County, public transit in the Miami metropolitan area is served by Broward County Transit and Palm Tran; intercounty commuter rail service is provided by Tri-Rail, with 18 stations including the region's three international airports.[269] Orlando: Orlando is served by the SunRail commuter train, which runs on a 32 miles (51 km) (61 miles (98 km) when complete) line including four stops in downtown. Lynx bus serves the greater Orlando area in Orange, Seminole, and Osceola counties.[270] Tampa: Tampa and its surrounding area use the Hillsborough Area Regional Transit Authority system ("HART"). In addition, downtown Tampa has continuous trolley services in the form of a heritage trolley powered by Tampa Electric Company. Pinellas County and St. Petersburg provide similar services through the Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority or "PSTA". The beaches of Pinellas County also have a continuous trolley bus. Downtown St. Petersburg has a trolley system.[271][272] Jacksonville: Jacksonville is served by the Jacksonville Skyway, an automated people mover monorail connecting the Florida State College downtown campus, the Northbank central business district, Convention Center, and Southbank locations. The system includes eight stops connected by two lines. JTA bus has 180 vehicles with 56 lines.[273] Sports Main article: Sports in Florida See also: Sports teams in Florida American Airlines Arena in Miami Marlins Park in Little Havana Daytona International Speedway is home to various auto racing events. Florida has three NFL teams, two MLB teams, two NBA teams, two NHL teams, and two MLS teams. Florida gained its first permanent major-league professional sports team in 1966 when the American Football League added the Miami Dolphins. Florida has given professional sports franchises some subsidies in the form of tax breaks since 1991.[274] About half of all Major League Baseball teams conduct spring training in the state, with teams informally organized into the "Grapefruit League". Throughout MLB history, other teams have held spring training in Florida. NASCAR (headquartered in Daytona Beach) begins all three of its major auto racing series in Florida at Daytona International Speedway in February, featuring the Daytona 500. Daytona also has the Coke Zero Sugar 400 NASCAR race weekend in August. NASCAR also has a race weekend at Homestead-Miami Speedway in Homestead in October. The 24 Hours of Daytona is one of the world's most prestigious endurance auto races. The Grand Prix of St. Petersburg and Grand Prix of Miami have held IndyCar races as well. Florida is a major golf hub. The PGA of America is headquartered in Palm Beach Gardens, the PGA Tour is headquartered in Ponte Vedra Beach, and the LPGA is headquartered in Daytona Beach. The Players Championship, WGC-Cadillac Championship, Arnold Palmer Invitational, Honda Classic and Valspar Championship are PGA Tour rounds. Florida has teams in all five American major league sports. Florida's most recent major-league team, Inter Miami, began play in MLS in 2020.[275] The Miami Masters is an ATP World Tour Masters 1000 and WTA Premier tennis event, whereas the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships is an ATP World Tour 250 event. There are minor league baseball, football, basketball, ice hockey, soccer and indoor football teams based in Florida.[276] Ben Hill Griffin Stadium is the largest football stadium in Florida, the 12th largest stadium in American college football, and the 18th largest stadium in the world, as measured by its official seating capacity of 88,548—though, it has often held over 90,000 for Florida's home football games. Florida's universities have a number of collegiate sport programs. Major college football programs include the Florida State Seminoles and Miami Hurricanes of the Atlantic Coast Conference, and the Florida Gators of the Southeastern Conference.[277] Since 1996, Florida has added four additional teams to the ranks of Division I FBS: UCF Knights, South Florida Bulls, Florida Atlantic Owls and FIU Panthers. State symbols Main article: List of Florida state symbols In God We Trust motto on Florida license plate with a orange blossom the state flower The Florida panther is the state animal. The majority of the symbols were chosen after 1950; only the two oldest symbols—the state flower (chosen in 1909), and the state bird (chosen in 1927), and the state nickname (chosen in 1970)—are not listed in the 2010 Florida Statutes.[278] Amphibian: Barking tree frog Animal: Florida panther Anthem: "Florida (Where the Sawgrass Meets the Sky)" Beverage: Orange juice Bird: Northern mockingbird Bird: American flamingo Festival: "Calle Ocho-Open House 8" Fish (fresh water): Florida largemouth bass Fish (salt water): Atlantic sailfish Flower: Orange blossom Fruit: Orange Gem: Moonstone Horse: Florida Cracker Horse Insect: Zebra longwing Mammal (salt water): Common bottlenose dolphin Mammal (marine): Florida manatee Motto: "In God We Trust" Nickname: The Sunshine State Palm Tree: Coconut palm Pie: Key lime pie Play: Cross and Sword Reptile: American alligator Reptile (salt water): Loggerhead sea turtle Rodeo: Silver Spurs Rodeo Shell: Horse conch Soil: Myakka soil Song: "Old Folks at Home" State day/week: Pascua Florida Stone: Agatized coral Tortoise: Gopher tortoise Tree: Sabal palmetto Wildflower: Tickseed Sister states Sister jurisdiction Country Year[279] Languedoc-Roussillon France 1989 Taiwan Province Taiwan, R.O.C. 1992 Wakayama Prefecture Japan 1995 Western Cape South Africa 1995 Nueva Esparta Venezuela 1999 Kyonggi South Korea 2000
  • Condition: Used
  • Type: Photograph
  • Year of Production: 1972

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